CHRISTIAN 
BROTHERHOODS 


FREDERICK  DeLAND  LEETE 


GIFT  or     ^ 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/cliristianbrotlierOOIeetricli 


Christian  Brotherhoods 


"By 
FREDERICK  DeLAND  LEETE 

Author  of     Every  Day  Evangelism  * 


t 


CINCINNATI:    JENNINGS  AND  GRAHAM 
NEW     YORK:      EATON     AND     MAINS 


Copyright,  1912 
By  Jennings  and  Giaham 


IlavTa?  TifJLrj<iaTey  rrjv  dSiXtfiOTrjTa  ayairare 


329943 


\n)     '^       V 


^t 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  Page 

Introduction,     -        -        -        -        -        -      7 

I.  The  First  Church  Brotherhoods 

Fraternal  Spirit  and  Mutual  Helpfulness 
of  Early  Christians,  -        -        -        -         13 

II.   Ascetics  and  Their  Societies 

Paul  the  Hermit  to  Augustine,         -        -    20 

III.  Rise  of  Medieval  Brotherhoods 

Benedict  to  Cluny.    Reformed  Orders,  30 

IV.  The  Mendicants 

Francis  of  Assisi  and  Dominic,         -         -    44 

V.   Military  Orders 

Kjiights  and  Soldiers  of  Christ,    -        -        56 

VI.    Mystical  Brotherhoods 

Poor  Men  and  Friends  of  God,         -         -     72 

VII.   Lollards  and  Brothers  of  the  Com- 
mon Life 

Mystical  Brotherhoods — Continued,     -       84 

VIII.   Guilds  and  Secret  Societies 

Trade  and  Social  Fraternities,  -        -     96 

IX.   Brothers  of  Pity 

Humane  and  Philanthropic  Fraternities,     115 

X.  Austere  and  Missionary  Orders 

Pious  and  Preaching  Brotherhoods,  -  136 

XI.   Educational  Brotherhoods 

Teachers  and  Litterateurs,   -        -        -       161 

5 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  ^  ^  ^'^ 

XII.   Modern  Roman  Lay  Brotherhoods 
Political,  Benevolent,  Temperance, 
and  Parochial  Societies,      -        -         -  186 

XIII.  Early  Protestant  Brotherhoods 

From  the  Sixteenth  Century  to  the 
Nineteenth, 205 

XIV.  Anglican  Brotherhoods 

Church  of  England  and  Protestant 

Episcopal, 225 

XV.  Auxiliary  Associations 

Societies  of  Men  Related  to  the 

Protestant  Church,  -        -        -       248 

XVI.   Democratic  Brotherhoods  of  Britain 
The  Pleasant  Sunday  Afternoon  Move- 
ment, - 272 

XVII.  Interdenominational  Brotherhoods 

Andrew  and  Philip — Baraca  Union,   -       291 

XVIII.  Recent  Church  Brotherhoods 

Methodist  and  Presbyterian,  -         -  308 

XIX.  The  More  Recent  Church  Brother- 
hoods 
Representing  Various  Christian  Bodies,    336 

XX.   Laymen's  Unions,  Leagues,  and  Clubs 

Men's  Society  Miscellany,      -        -         -  356 

XXI.   Men  and  Christianity,        -        -        _      379 

Index, -        -  401 


6 


INTRODUCTION 


In  any  competent  definition  of  its  meaning  Brotherhood 
is  a  Christian  product;  fraternities  having  this  spirit 
are  either  of  direct  Christian  origin  or  have  rooted 
themselves  in  soil  which  has  been  mellowed  by  Christian 
teaching.  In  no  part  of  the  world  untouched  by  the 
faith  of  Christ  has  humanitarian  and  altruistic  work 
been  accomplished  like  that  represented  in  the  annals  of 
Christian  Brotherhood.  *'To  subdue  Self/'  said  M.  de 
Tocqueville,  *'is  the  secret  of  strength.'*  Christianity 
not  only  teaches  this  truth,  but  it  empowers  the  soul 
with  altruistic  passions  which  can  not  be  satisfied  with- 
out rendering  offices  of  holy  love. 

The  aim  of  this  book  is  to  give  in  outline  an  account 
of  men's  societies  produced  by  Christian  influence,  what- 
ever their  denominational  relations,  and  with  reference 
to  their  avowed  purposes  and  results  rather  than  to  the 
distinction  of  lay  or  clerical.  This  undertaking  seems 
to  be  paralleled  in  no  existing  work.  The  Roman  orders 
are  considered  in  comprehensive  treatises  such  as  those 
of  Helyot  and  Heimbucher,  but  these  volumes  are  some- 
what out  of  date,  and  they  hardly  do  justice  to  the  mod- 
ern conception  which  classifies  institutions  by  use  of  the 
pragmatic  criterion  of  activities  and  results.  Secret  so- 
cieties and  secular  guilds  have  been  quite  fully  con- 
sidered by  various  authors,  but  their  origin  through 
Christian  inspiration  has  been  generally  misstated  or 
overlooked.  Mystical  societies,  even  more  completely 
than  monastic  orders,  have  been  lost  in  discussions  of 

7 


the  abstractions,  mysticism,  and  monasticism.  Brother- 
hoods of  pity,  of  piety,  and  of  Christian  education  have 
labored  in  much  obscurity,  and  ancient  and  modern 
Church  brotherhoods  and  auxiliary  societies  of  Christian 
men  have  nowhere  been  brought  together  and  repre- 
sented as  the  fruits  of  one  spirit. 

An  impressive  lesson  is  learned  by  observing  the 
scope  of  the  undertakings  and  interests  of  Christian 
brotherhoods.  No  phase  or  relation  of  life  has  been  un- 
touched by  their  thought  and  action.  They  have  felt 
all  the  needs,  and  have  made  to  them  some  response. 
It  will  be  a  surprise  to  those  who  have  not  considered 
the  matter  to  be  brought  into  contact  with  a  movement 
or  chain  of  movements  which  has  entered  all  the  pro- 
fessions, which  has  exercised  every  form  of  talent  and 
even  of  genius,  and  which  has  labored  for  the  freedom 
and  advancement  of  the  various  races  and  conditions  of 
human  life  with  scarcely  an  exception.  It  is  no  small 
office,  to  which  the  present  effort  should  contribute  some- 
thing, to  display  the  fraternalism  of  the  Church  in  its 
universal  and  practical  qualities. 

The  theme  grows  as  it  is  studied.  Unobtrusive  men, 
intent  not  upon  fame  but  upon  deeds  of  love,  have  lacked 
reporters  and  trumpeters.  The  societies  which  they 
formed  have  been  busy  with  preaching  and  nursing, 
with  fighting  plagues  and  heresies,  poverty  and  sorrow, 
oppression  and  death,  and  so  lowly  and  silent  has  been 
this  self -forgetful  ministry  that  the  Church  historian, 
mindful  of  ecclesiastical  parliaments  and  prelacies,  and 
of  dogmatic  strifes,  has  given  it  scant  space  and  little 
praise.  Even  to-day  the  real  work  of  Christianity,  its 
individual  and  collective  charities,  its  missions,  religious 
teachings  and  evangelisms,  its  social  relations,  fraternal 
aids  and  mutual  solaces,  is  so  little  known  that  one  of 
the  strongest  arguments  in  behalf  of  the  faith  and  one 
of  the  most  powerful  persuasions  to  Church  fellowship 

8 


INTRODUCTION 

is  greatly  affected.  To  bring  to  mind  the  history  of 
noble  societies  of  Christian  men,  some  of  which  have 
been  ignored  and  others  traduced,  and  to  portray,  even 
though  partially  and  feebly,  the  useful  activities  of  their 
brilliant  leaders  and  of  their  unselfish  members,  may 
help  to  serve  the  double  purpose  of  redeeming  the  past 
and  of  setting  forth  in  better  light  the  inner  life  and 
undertakings  of  the  Church. 

If  any  truth  is  contained  in  the  saying,  ''History  is 
philosophy  teaching  by  example,*'  it  may  be  affirmed 
that  the  best  methodology  is  the  knowledge  of  what  has 
been  done.  Moreover,  "compare  and  contrast"  is  still 
a  good  law  of  understanding,  and  the  modern  Church 
will  be  wiser  by  applying  this  rule  to  the  institutions  of 
its  own  past.  If  Christian  work  by  and  for  men  is  to 
succeed,  it  will  not  be  by  the  repetition  of  old  errors, 
nor  by  neglecting  the  lessons  of  its  victories.  Without 
a  question  the  latest  brotherhood,  association,  or  order 
has  much  to  learn  from  a  careful  study  of  the  societies 
which  have  preceded  its  formation. 

In  this  work  I  have  not  been  careful  to  adhere  closely 
to  accurate  ecclesiastical  terminology,  but  have  often 
employed  words  which  refer  to  orders  and  to  their  in- 
stitution and  discipline  rather  in  their  generic  than  in 
a  technical  significance.  Nor  has  the  Church  classifica- 
tion and  judgment  of  its  societies  been  blindly  followed. 
It  can  not  be  hoped  that  no  errors  have  been  made,  nor 
that  in  all  cases  orders  have  been  accurately  and  ade- 
quately represented.  The  effort  has  been  to  set  forth  aims 
and  plans,  but  to  group  synthetically  by  actual  deeds,  so 
far  as  these  could  be  ascertained  through  independent 
study.  Facts  are  stubborn  things,  and  while  institutions 
may  often  resent  being  valued  by  the  standard  of  their 
achievements,  in  the  page  of  history  actions  should  speak 
more  loudly  than  words.  My  investigations  have  some- 
times disproved  high  professions,  and  they  have  quite  aa 


INTRODUCTION 

often  brought  to  light  unexpected  revelations  of  virtue. 
Not  a  few  of  the  best  expressions  of  fraternal  love  and 
life  have  in  the  past  been  consigned  to  obloquy  by  mis- 
representation, and  the  records  of  Christian  orders  con- 
tain many  errors,  and  some  positive  and  demonstrable 
untruths.  To  look  into  these  matters  has  afforded  many 
a  valuable  lesson  in  the  philosophy  of  prejudice. 

One  result  of  such  a  study  as  that  from  which  this 
book  has  come,  and  to  which  it  is  hoped  others  may  be 
drawn,  is  a  new  sense  of  the  vitality  and  usefulness  of 
Christian  faith  and  principle,  and  together  with  this  the 
mind  should  be  deeply  impressed  with  the  thought  of 
the  value  of  co-operation  in  the  direction  of  the  divine 
will.  Mass  takes  on  momentum,  provided  sufficient 
power  is  exerted  on  the  same  side  at  the  same  time. 
Organization  and  correlation  of  forces  have  marked  the 
periods  of  Christian  progress,  and  will  continue  to  do  so. 
The  time  is  ripe  for  a  new  realization  of  the  possibilities 
of  combinations  of  Churchmen,  and  of  the  direction  of 
their  energies  to  the  highest  social  and  religious  achieve- 
ments. The  part  which  the  Christian  Brotherhoods  have 
taken  in  the  development  of  modern  civilization,  and  in 
the  propagation  of  Christianity  and  of  its  institutions — 
a  work  whose  greatness  of  influence  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated— calls  for  renewed  power  and  wisdom  in  un- 
dertaking still  more  notable  conquests. 

In  the  records  even  of  good  men  and  institutions  some 
passages  exist  which  we  would  fain  be  able  to  deny. 
Also  it  is  true,  as  La  Rochefoucauld  says,  that  *'we  do 
not  always  like  those  whom  we  admire.''  Nevertheless, 
after  closing  a  task  which  has  consumed  the  spare  time 
of  the  past  ten  years,  and  whose  trail  has  led  to  many 
old  libraries  and  forgotten  tomes,  as  well  as  to  modern 
sources,  the  writer  realizes  that  he  has  had  a  delightful 
as  well  as  an  inspiring  task. 

For  it  is  a  thrilling  story  which  the  patient  pen  la- 
10 


INTRODUCTION 

boriously  sets  down,  and  which  the  silent  page  but  dully 
types,  of  men  who  wrought  for  God  and  for  the  world's 
salvation.  Prophets  of  the  desert,  and  hermits  of  moun- 
tain fastnesses,  knights  and  soldiers,  saints  and  mystics, 
barefoot  preachers  and  flaming  evangelists,  philosophers 
and  philanthropists,  heroes  and  brothers  of  all  lands 
and  of  all  ages,  pass  in  review.  They  move  with  power ; 
the  breath  of  their  devotion  kindles  the  heart;  a  like 
passion  seizes  the  lips,  which  are  impelled  to  echo  the 
cry  heard  down  the  centuries  and  never  to  cease  until 
the  final  triumph  of  the  Kingdom  of  Jesus  Christ,  **Mihi 
absit  gloriari  nisi  in  cruce  Domini!'* 

The  final  teaching  is  that  an  essential  unity  underlies 
Christian  work  in  its  varied  forms.  Beneath  differences 
of  creed  and  scheme,  of  symbol  and  vestment,  is  the 
attempt  to  glorify  God  and  to  promote  the  happiness 
of  men.  In  the  work  of  God  the  soldiers  Pachomius  and 
Ignatius  were  brothers;  so  also  were  the  mystics  Flo- 
rentius  and  Francis,  the  reformers  Savonarola  and 
Luther,  Benezet  and  Bernard,  Hugh  of  Avalon  and 
John  of  God,  St.  Stephen  and  St.  Charles,  Borsi,  Wesley, 
and  Sir  George  Williams.  Now  that  long  time  has 
passed,  these  men  are  the  treasure  of  the  whole  Church, 
and  the  record  which  comprises  such  names  must  in 
some  degree  serve  to  strengthen  good  fellowship  between 
all  branches  of  Christendom  and  to  speed  the  day  of 
Universal  Brotherhood. 


11 


Christian  Brotherhoods 


THE  FIRST  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

FRATERNAL  SPIRIT  AND  MUTUAL  HELPFULNESS  OF 
EARLY  CHRISTIANS 

The  origin  of  Christian  Brotherhoods  is  somewhat  ob- 
scure. As  was  the  case  with  many  initial  movements  in 
Church  history,  the  subject  did  not  seem  to  be  of  im- 
portance until  lapse  of  time  had  destroyed  the  records. 
At  the  beginning  the  whole  Church  was  a  brotherhood, 
as  every  student  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  of  the 
New  Testament  Epistles  is  aware.  Because  the  infant 
Church  was  bound  by  a  new  and  sacred  tie,  and  because 
its  members  faced  common  difficulties  and  perils,  a  fel- 
lowship existed  between  them  which  not  only  led  them 
to  call  each  other  * 'brother,''^  but  which  gladly  shared 
temporal  possessions^  and  ministered  to  the  wants  of  the 
needy.  This  it  soon  became  necessary  to  do  with  system 
and  discretion,  which  led  to  the  appointment  of  certain 
officers  of  lay,  or  at  least  of  not  more  than  subclerical 
functions,  whose  duties  were  to  serve  the  tables  of  the 
Church  and  to  divide  benefits  physical. 

1  Latin,  f rater;  French,  frSre,  friar.  In  the  Roman  Church  the  term 
came  to  be  applied  to  monks,  and  since  the  thirteenth  century  principally 
to  the  Mendicants. 

2  Acts.  It  was  a  common  fund  the  disciples  established,  and  not 
community  of  goods,  as  has  been  erroneously  claimed.  "History  of 
Christianity,"  Milman,  Book  II,  p.  368.  Also,  "Christianity  and  the 
Social  Crisis,"   Bauschenbusch,  pp.   120-123. 

13 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  isolation  and  peril  of  the  early  Christians  are 
facts  which  need  to  be  kept  before  the  mind.  At  first 
it  was  necessary  for  the  Christian  organizations  to  elude 
the  law  restricting  the  formation  of  collegia  and  sodali- 
tates.  !When  Rome  was  Republican,  associations  could 
be  made  by  citizens  at  will,  but  the  empire  was  fearful 
of  the  political  effect  of  such  combinations,  and  they 
were  permitted  by  Julius  only  within  very  narrow 
limits.  Benefit  clubs  for  the  poor,  mutual  relief  asso- 
ciations, alone  were  permitted,  and  for  any  purpose  be- 
yond that  of  religious  ritual  they  were  allowed  to  meet 
only  monthly.  The  most  common  of  these  clubs  were 
for  burial  purposes,  but  other  examples  were  found.  By 
the  third  century,  and  perhaps  by  the  time  of  Hadrian, 
130-140,  the  Christian  communities  had  found  it  best 
to  accommodate  themselves  to  Roman  law  by  enrolling 
themselves  as  benefit  clubs,  and  the  practice  probably 
became  general.  These  collegia  tenuiorum  or  funera- 
ticia  proved  to  be  a  step  by  which  organized  Chris- 
tianity, even  while  still  a  capital  offense,  could  become 
legal,  could  hold  property,  which  must  be  done  in  the 
name  of  some  individual  for  the  collegium,  and  could 
exercise  its  great  and  necessary  charities.  The  churches 
became  collegia,  therefore,  for  legality  rather  than,  as 
in  exceptional  instances,  for  concealment,  and  into  the 
old  Roman  associations  they  brought  the  reality  of  a 
new  and  deep  fraternity  which  the  world  had  never 
previously  known,  and  which  bridged  the  distinction 
between  poor  and  rich,  and  even  between  master  and 
slave.^ 

That  the  spirit  and  practice  of  Christian  brotherhood 
continued  to  be  evidenced  in  the  Church  while  its  mem- 
bers were  few  and  its  cause  unpopular,  there  can  be 
no  doubt.*    During  its  early  experience  the  Church  re- 

»Iii  this  paragraph  I  have  followed  Ramsay,  W.  M,,  •'The  Church  in 
the  Roman  Empire;"   see  pp.  215,   359,  430-432,  43-6. 
*  "History  C?hristian  Church,"  Fisher,  p.  69. 

14 


THE  FIRST  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

membered  the  fraternal  obligations  taught  by  Jesus  and 
the  apostles  to  do  them.  *' Their  Master,"  said  Lucian 
in  his  humorous  description,  *'has  persuaded  them  that 
they  are  all  brothers.  "^  This  brotherliness  extended 
even  to  strangers,  much  to  the  surprise  of  beholders. 
Very  soon,  doubtless,  certain  helpful  social  duties  were 
referred  to  women,  and  others  were,  as  we  have  already 
noted,  assigned  to  men. 

The  first  formally  organized  body  of  Christian  men 
having  fraternal  offices  was  formed,  according  to  Gib- 
bon, during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Gallienus  at  the 
time  of  the  plague  in  Alexandria.^  Binterim,  however, 
attributed  the  establishment  of  these  functionaries  as 
a  distinct  order  to  the  reign  of  Constantine."^  It  is 
probably  a  difference  in  terms,  rather  than  in  fact.  The 
arising  of  the  order  in  its  practical  uses  may  doubtless 
be  assigned  to  the  earlier  date,  even  though  Eusebius 
says  that  during  the  time  of  the  great  plague  Chris- 
tians generally  gave  themselves  to  fraternal  service.* 

The  name  of  this  society  was  the  Parabolani,  prob- 
ably from  irapa^aWav  Tqv  ^w^v,  to  risk  lif e,^  or  from  the 
nature  of  the  duty  itself,  irapa^oXov  epyov,  a  hazardous 
office.  This  title,  with  a  Latin  suffix,  has  also  been  ex- 
plained by  reference  to  the  irapdpoXoL,  ''dare-devils," 
who  fought  with  wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheaters.  The 
early  Christians  generally  were  sometimes  called  by 
heathen,  **The  Parabolani,"  because  of  their  readiness 
for  martyrdom  in  defense  of  their  faith. 

Scant  justice  has  been  done  this  society  by  historians. 
Some  seem  unconscious  that  it  existed.  Some  are  preju- 
diced against  it  on  account  of  the  later  excesses  of 

''H.  D.  M.  Spence-Jones,  "The  Early  Christians  in  Rome,"  treats 
early  Christianity  as  "the  Christian  Brotherhood;"  e.  g.,  pp.  38,  111, 
114,  119,   121,  etc. 

«  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  IV.  500,  nota  b. 

'"Memorable  Things,"  VI,  3,  26. 

»"Eccl.   Hist.,"   VII,   22. 

""History  Christian  Church,"  Schaff,  III,  263,  note  3, 

15 


CHEISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

fanaticism  to  which  a  part  of  the  order  degenerated. 
Others  have  evidently  read  but  a  portion  of  its  history, 
and  therefore  give  a  most  partial  and  inadequate  ac- 
count of  its  purposes  and  achievements. 

The  rise  of  the  Parabolani  was  dtie  to  the  preva- 
lence of  diseases,  and  especially  of  contagious  diseases 
in  Oriental  lands;  and  to  the  need  of  helpfulness,  par- 
ticularly to  the  poorer  classes,  when  these  scourges  ap- 
peared. The  Parabolani  were  really  nurses  of  the  sick, 
and  as  such  they  performed  offices  of  lowly  love  and 
deeds  of  heroism  which  are  worthy  of  the  highest  honor. 
They  were  not  primarily  spiritual  advisers,  though  as 
Christian  zealots  they  must  doubtless  have  sought  to 
strengthen  the  faith  or  to  awaken  the  religious  interest 
of  those  to  whom  they  ministered.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  so  little  note  of  labors  of  this  nature  is  usually 
taken.  To  this  fact  it  is  probably  in  no  small  part 
due  that  false  estimates  have  been  made  of  the  impor- 
tance of  an  order  to  which  many  devout  men  gave  their 
lives. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Parabolani  were  lay  assistants 
to  the  clergy,^°  although  they  are  sometimes  ranked  as 
an  inferior  clerical  order.^^  They  were  not  confined,  as 
some  have  erroneously  stated,  to  Alexandria,  but  spread 
over  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor.  They  were  unrepresented 
in  the  West.^^  By  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century 
their  numbers  in  Alexandria  ran  into  the  hundreds,  an 
edict  of  Theodosius  II,  in  416,  reducing  and  limiting 
the  number  to  five  hundred;  but  two  years  later  by 
clerical  influence  the  limit  was  again  raised  to  six  hun- 
dred. ^^  The  corporation  flourished  greatly  at  Constan- 
tinople also,  an  edict  about  the  same  time  deleting  the 

"Addis  and  Arnold. 

11  "Universal  C?hurch  History,"   Alzog,   I,   652. 

"Schaff,    "History    Christian    Ohurch,"    III,    263;    Contra,    Herzog, 
"Schaff-Herzog  Encycl." 
«"Cod.  Tbebd.,"  VI,  82. 

16 


THE  FIRST  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

ranks  from  eleven  hundred  to  nine  hundred  and  fifty 
members.^* 

A  society  similar  to  the  Parabolani  was  that  of  the 
Copiatae,  probably  from  KOTrtaw,  to  labor.  Their  Latin 
name  was  Fossarii,  or  grave-diggers.  Justinian  *s  novels 
call  them  Lecticarii,  as  bearers  of  the  corpse  or  bier  at 
funerals.^ ^  Certain  writers  identify  this  corporation 
with  that  of  the  Parabolani,^*  but  it  seems  to  have  been 
a  separate  institution  whose  business  it  was  to  care  for 
the  dead  and  to  superintend  their  burial.  This  duty 
was  performed  gratuitously  in  the  case  of  the  poor.^' 
The  foundation  of  the  order  has  been  attributed  to  Con- 
stantine,  before  whose  time  the  care  of  the  dead  waa 
a  charitable  service  for  which  Christians  volunteered 
as  there  was  need.  In  Constantinople  the  Copiataa 
formed  a  collegium,  lands  were  set  apart  for  their  main- 
tenance, and  they  enjoyed  valuable  rights  and  privi- 
leges. In  the  Theodosian  code  they  are  reckoned  among 
the  lesser  clergy. ^^  In  some  communities  no  tax  waa 
levied  upon  the  products  of  their  labor,  by  which  means 
in  part  they  received  support.  As  the  first  of  Christian 
burial  guilds  they  are  entitled  to  much  consideration, 
especially  if  they  kept  to  their  office  unseduced  by  the 
political  strifes  which  involved  the  later  history  of  the 
Parabolani.  The  latter  being  subject  to  the  appoint- 
ment and  direction  of  the  bishops,  and  being  by  nature 
enthusiasts,  attached  themselves  to  the  person  of  their 
prelate  and  fought  his  battles,  after  a  time  even  with 
carnal  weapons.  The  excellent  purpose  with  which  their 
order  was  founded  was  lost  sight  of  until  the  words  of 

""Cod.  Justin,"   I,  24. 

"Butler,    "Diet.   Christian  Antiq.,"   Smith  and  Cheetham. 

"Alzog,  "Universal  Church  History,"  I,  654,  note  3.  Smith  and 
Cheetham  credits  thc-m  with  the  exact  membership  which  other  authori- 
ties allow  the  Parabolani. 

"Bingham,  iii,  8. 

"  "Clericos  excipitantum,  qui  Copiatae  appellantur,"  lib.  13,  tit.  I. 
So  also  an  ancient  writing  by  some  attributed  to  Jerome,  de  sept.  ord. 
Ecclesiae,   tr.   Pabisch  &  Byrne. 

2  17 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Baronius  became  the  history  of  the  society,  ''Ex  charite 
officium  transivit  in  f actionem." 

In  the  contest  between  Cyril  and  the  Prefect  Orestes, 
the  Parabolani  took  so  active  part  in  favor  of  their 
bishop,  and  so  disturbed  Alexandria,  that  the  emperor 
divorced  them  from  ecclesiastical  control  and  placed 
them  under  the  authority  of  the  prefect.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  their  numbers  were  reduced  by  edict.  Their 
increase  was  restricted  to  recruits  from  the  lower  classes, 
they  were  forbidden  the  law  courts,  and  as  a  body  were 
shut  out  of  the  games  and  shows  of  the  community. 
These  inhibitions,  however,  were  afterward  in  part  re- 
moved, and  they  were  restored  to  episcopal  superin- 
tendence. At  the  so-called  Latrocinium,  or  ''Robber^* 
Synod"  of  Ephesus,  A.  D.  449,  six  hundred  Parabolani 
were  present  who  subscribed  to  the  views  of  Eutyches 
and  followed  the  lead  of  the  brutal  monk  Barsumas  in 
coercing  councilors  and  in  effecting  the  martyrdom  of 
Flavian,  Bishop  of  Constantinople.  The  legislation  of 
Justinian  confirming  prohibitions  against  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Parabolani  on  public  occasions  sufficiently 
indicates  that  when  their  proper  duties  were  forgotten 
for  the  struggles  of  ecclesiastical  partisanship  they  be- 
came dangerous  to  the  State  as  well  as  to  the  Church. 

In  all  just  estimates  of  men  and  of  institutions 
account  must  be  made  of  opportunities  and  environ- 
ment. Remembering  the  character  of  the  age  in  which 
the  Parabolani  lived,  their  ecclesiastical  government  and 
dependence,  as  well  as  the  fierce  temptations  to  which 
they  were  subjected,  their  later  ambition,  restlessness, 
and  even  violence  are  accounted  for.  Meanwhile  their 
offices  of  mercy  and  benevolence  must  not  be  overlooked 
or  forgotten.  Their  duties  were  certainly  of  great  im- 
portance, and  that  such  works  be  performed  as  often 

"The  odions  name  does  not  justify  the  assumption  that  this  Council 
was  evil  above  all  others.  "History  Latin  Christianity,"  Milman, 
I,  286. 

18 


THE  FIRST  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

as  possible,  and  certainly  for  the  very  poor,  in  the  name 
of  the  Church,  is  not  only  in  harmony  with  the  spirit 
of  Christianity,  but  is  directly  related  to  its  interests. 
Well  would  it  be  for  the  Christian  Church  of  to-day 
if  the  care  of  the  needy  and  sick  and  the  burial  of  the 
dead  were  not  so  often  left  to  secular  societies  or  to  the 
fitful  philanthropy  of  individuals.  In  a  systematic  way 
the  serious  crises  in  the  lives  of  men  should  all  be  met 
by  adequate  provision  on  the  part  of  organized  Chris- 
tianity, evidence  being  thus  given  to  all  beholders  of 
the  reality  of  Christian  affection.  Through  whatever 
societies  of  any  communion  the  offices  of  the  Parabolani 
and  of  the  Copiatae  are  in  any  wise  fulfilled  according 
to  the  needs  of  the  age,  their  example  has  been  fruitful, 
and  their  seduction,  errors,  and  overthrow  are  avenged. 
A  more  careful  study  of  the  history  of  these  societies, 
with  a  resulting  better  understanding  of  all  that  relates 
to  their  usefulness  and  their  limitations,  would  recover 
to  the  Church  one  of  its  dimly  remembered  chapters  of 
helpfulness,  and  even  of  heroism,  while  it  would  also 
afford  valuable  lessons  concerning  the  influence  of  their 
worldly  environment  upon  the  early  Christians  and  the 
causes  of  the  ruin  which  befell  many  of  them^ 


19 


II 

ASCETICS  AND  THEIR  SOCIETIES 

PAUL  THE  HERMIT  TO  AUGUSTINE 

It  will  occasion  no  surprise  that  monachism  should  be 
reviewed  in  this  work,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the 
Christian  monastic  orders  were  originally  not  only- 
Church  brotherhoods,  but  societies  of  laymen.  During 
their  early  history  ecclesiastics  were  rarely  to  be  found 
among  them,  for  some  time  a  single  priest  being  the 
utmost  allowance  for  each  monastery. 

In  this  account  no  mention  wiU  be  made  of  inde- 
pendent and  adjunct  societies  of  women,  whose  history 
seems  to  be  traceable  to  the  earliest  date  to  which  we 
can  definitely  assign  organizations  composed  exclusively 
of  men. 

Monachism  had  been  long  known  when  Christianity 
appeared,^  but  its  greatest  development  has  been  in  the 
Christian  Church.  *' India,"  says  Wishart,  *'is  thought 
by  some  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  the  institution. 
In  the  sacred  writings  of  the  venerable  Hindus,  portions 
of  which  have  been  dated  as  far  back  as  2400  B.  C,  there 
are  numerous  legends  about  holy  monks,  and  many  as- 
cetic rules.'' 

The  primary  conception  on  which  this  form  of  life 
is  based  was  common  among  both  ancient  Jews  and  pa- 
gans. It  may  be  studied  in  the  select  fraternity  of  Py- 
thagoras, and  it  almost  approaches  the  Christian  form  in 
the  Essenes,  Stoics,  and  Theraputae.    Germs  of  Christian 

^Ruffner  gives  much  space  in  Vol.  I,  "Fathers  of  the  Desert,"  to 
pre-Cbristian  mouasticism. 

20 


ASCETICS  AND  THEIR  SOCIETIES 

monastieism  are  traced  to  the  earliest  period  of  Churcli 
history,  and  in  the  second  century  we  find  isolated 
ascetics.  Origen  near  the  middle  of  the  third  century 
describes  their  austerities,  saying  that,  like  the  disciples 
of  Pythagoras,  they  always  abstained  from  flesh.^  As 
we  study  the  rise  of  monastieism  to  prominence  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries,  the  causes  of  its  successful 
appeal  seem  to  have  been  somewhat  complex.  Among 
the  most  efficient  were  perhaps  the  Oriental  tendency  to 
retirement  and  asceticism,  the  influence  of  the  Neo- 
Platonic  doctrine  of  intellectual  purification  by  physical 
abstention,  and  especially  reaction  from  the  social 
luxury  and  administrative  weakness  evidenced  in  the 
period  of  the  decadence  of  the  empire,  and  in  the  Church 
as  soon  as  the  rapid  progress  of  Christianity  brought 
in  large  numbers  of  merely  nominal  converts.  Monastic 
orders  flourished  most  greatly  in  times  of  social  dis- 
order, and  were  never  so  widely  popular  in  a  healthful 
national  life. 

From  the  first,  monachism  was  divided  into  the  two 
great  branches  of  anchorets,  who  sought  in  complete 
isolation  from  their  fellows  a  closer  union  of  soul  with 
the  Deity,  and  cenobites,  who  aimed  at  presenting  to 
the  world  the  example  of  a  sanctified  community.  The 
latter  type  came  to  prevail,  although  hermits  have  not 
even  as  yet  entirely  disappeared. 

Very  probably,  as  a  learned  Orientalist  teaches, 
Christian  monastieism  had  an  early  origin  in  Syria. 
The  Syriac  language  is  rich  in  words  for  monks  and 
nuns,  having  terms  for  Cenobite,  Anchorite,  Eremite, 
and  Stylite.  In  Syriac  ecclesiastical  literature  oc- 
curs the  term  lar  Q'ydmd,  ''Son  of  the  Covenant," 
which  may  at  first  have  been  applied  to  all  baptized 
laity,  who  were  pledged  to  strict  continence  and  to  free- 
dom from  worldly  cares.    "When  Christianity  became  no 

'"Origen,"  Book  5,  p.  264. 

21 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

longer  a  proscribed  sect,  but  a  religion  acknowledged  by 
the  State,  the  younger  Christians  married  and  were  con- 
formed to  the  conduct  of  ordinary  life:  **the  older  fash- 
ioned B'nai  Q'ydmd  still  continued;  but  they  now  be- 
came a  sort  of  monastic  order  in  the  community,  instead 
of  the  community  itself.''^  However  one  may  view  this 
account  of  its  Syriac  origin,  the  early  development  of 
the  monastic  life  in  the  East  must  be  undoubted. 

It  was  not  a  united  order,  but  a  class  of  independent 
ascetics,  known  as  Monks  of  the  Thebaid,  which  was 
founded  by  Paul  the  Hermit  about  250  A.  D.  Bom  of 
wealthy  parents,  denounced  to  the  authorities  by  his 
brother-in-law  as  being  a  Christian,  he  fled  to  the  desert 
and  established  himself  in  a  cavern  shaded  by  palm 
trees,  where  he  remained  till  his  death,  which  occurred, 
according  to  Jerome,  342  A.  D.,  when  he  was  in  his  one 
hundred  and  thirteenth  year.  He  did  not  gather  disci- 
ples, and  it  was  only  by  his  example  that  he  became 
a  founder  of  monasticism,  and  especially  by  the  influ- 
ence of  his  life  upon  Anthony,  his  successor,  and  the 
first  noted  hermit  by  choice.  The  latter  was  born  of 
wealthy  Christian  parents  at  Coma,  Upper  Egypt,  and 
was  left  at  eighteen  years  of  age  with  a  large  fortune 
and  but  a  fair  education,*  which,  however,  included 
some  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures.  One  day,  hearing 
the  gospel  read,  "Go  and  sell  that  thou  hast  and  give 
to  the  poor,  and  come  and  follow  Me,"  he  took  it  as 
spoken  to  him  personally.  He  went  home,  sold  his  pos- 
sessions and  distributed  them  to  his  neighbors,  save  for 

""Early  Eastern  Christianity,"   F.   CJrawford  Burkitt,  p.   128  ff. 

•Butler,  "Lives  of  the  Saints,"  Vol.  I,  says,  "He  grew  up  unac- 
quainted with  any  branch  of  human  literature."  This  seems  exagger- 
ated, though  less  so  than  St.  Austin's  supposition  that  Anthony  could 
not  even  read.  The  basis  for  such  notions  is  Athanasius's  saying  that 
Anthony  in  his  childhood  never  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  letters 
yp&fifiara  fiadelv  ^^^  "Life  of  St.  Anthony,"  by  Athanasius,  a  work 
whose  genuineness  was  disputed  by  Rivetus,  Du  Pin,  and  later  by  Wine- 
garten,  but  which  is  not  rejected  by  the  best  authorities.  Tillemont 
shows  by  probable  arguments  that  Anthony  knew  Coptic.  Mem.  Eccles. 
S«e  Qibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall,"  III,  522,  and  note  8. 

22 


ASCETICS  AND  THEIR  SOCIETIES 

a  small  sum  for  the  support  of  his  sister.  Then  he  be- 
took himself  to  a  solitary  life  beside  the  Nile,  and  after- 
wards near  Mt.  Kolzim  on  the  banks  of  the  Red  Sea, 
spending  his  time  in  manual  labor,  prayer,  and  religious 
reading.  He  was  much  tempted  of  the  devil,  especially 
with  impure  imaginations,  but  by  humility,  prayer,  and 
watchfulness  he  conquered  the  evil  one  and  his  assaults. 
His  food  was  bread  with  a  little  salt,  and  he  drank 
only  water.  For  nearly  twenty  years  he  rarely  saw  a 
human  being.  Then  he  was  much  sought  for  as  a  mir- 
acle worker  and  as  a  teacher.  Around  his  name  grew 
up  a  host  of  legends,  both  sensible  and  fantastic.  He 
seems  to  have  beeq  a  shrewd  and  witty  antagonist  of 
those  who  came  to  overwhelm  him  with  their  learning,^ 
and  his  life  and  example  soon  brought  many  followers. 
It  is  said  that  his  first  monastery  was  founded  about 
305  and  consisted  of  scattered  cells  near  the  confines  of 
Upper  and  Middle  Egypt.  These  institutions  increased 
rapidly. 

Twice  Anthony  returned  to  civilization;  in  311,  to 
encourage  the  Church  of  Alexandria  during  the  perse- 
cution under  Maximin ;  and  in  335,  when,  at  the  request 
of  Athanasius,  he  visited  Alexandria  to  preach  against 
the  Arians.  St.  Anthony  drew  to  himself  many  disci- 
ples and  made  the  solitary  life  honorable  and  popular. 
Jerome  declared  **Hujus  vitas  auctor  Paulus,  illustrator 
etiam  Antonius."  While  he  was  himself  an  anchoret 
like  Paul  of  Thebes,  the  fame  of  his  virtues  brought 
many  to  his  cell  and  gave  rise  to  the  coenobium  with  its 
principle  of  life-in-common. 

The  soldier  Pachomius,  converted  to  Christ  in  the 
army,  further  developed  the  cenobitic  life  among  Chris- 

5  One  of  his  apt  replies,  contained  in  "Socrates  Hist.  Eccl.,"  Book 
IV,  seems  to  dispute  the  notion  of  his  absolute  illiteracy,  while  reveal- 
ing his  contempt  for  human  wisdom.  A  philosopher  said,  "How  can  you 
live  without  the  consolation  of  books?"  "My  books,  O  philosopher," 
said  Anthony,  "is  the  nature  of  things  created;  and  I  can  readily,  when 
I  will,  read  the  word  of  God." 

23 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

tians,  establishing  an  institution  on  the  island  of  Ta- 
benna  in  the  Nile.  The  materials  for  a  biography  of 
Pachomius  are  exceedingly  scanty.^  What  purports  to 
be  a  contemporary  account  by  a  monk  of  Tabenna  says 
that  he  was  born  to  a  wealthy  pagan  family  in  Lower 
Egjrpt,  and  that  in  his  youth  he  served  under  Constan- 
tino in  his  successful  campaign  against  Maxentius.  The 
kindness  of  Christians  attracted  him  to  religion,  and  he 
gave  himself  to  a  life  of  sanctity  and  self-restraint,  ac- 
quiring a  wide  reputation  for  holiness.  **It  is  said  he 
never  ate  a  full  meal  after  his  conversion,  and  for  fifteen 
years  slept  sitting  on  a  stone. ''^ 

St.  Anthony  never  formulated  a  rule,  but  the  rule 
of  the  Tabennites,  whose  foundation  is  dated  at  320 
A.  D.,  is  given  in  the  * '  Historia  Lausiaca ' '  of  Palladius 
and,  as  modified  by  Basil  the  Great  ^  some  half  century 
later,  became  the  permanent  form  of  Oriental  mona- 
chism,  the  Acoemeti,  or  **  sleepless ' '  monks,  of  the  fifth 
century  being  the  sole  exception  in  the  Eastern  Church. 
The  three  vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience  were 
adopted,  and  became  the  foundation  stones  of  monasti- 
cism.  The  Tabennites  occupied  cells  clustered  into  a 
laura,  which  had  a  common  place  for  meals  and  for 
other  assemblies.  Work  and  food  were  appointed  to 
each  inmate,  and  a  uniform  dress  was  adopted,  a  close 
linen  tunic  being  covered  with  a  white  goatskin  not  to 
be  laid  aside  for  meals  or  bed,  but  solely  at  the  Eucha- 
rist, where  the  hood  was  worn  and  the  tunic  was  un- 
covered. Twenty-four  groups  lettered  by  the  Greek 
alphabet  represented  the  various  intellectual  and  spir- 
itual attainments  of  the  members,  the  lowest  group  be- 
ing that  of  I,  the  simplest  letter;  and  the  highest  be- 

"Such   certain   facts   as   exist   and   their   sources   are   enumerated   in 
"The  Rise  of  Christian  Monasticism,"  I.  Gregory  Smith,  pp.  243-7. 
"•Monks  and  Monasteries,"   A."  W.  Wishart,  p.  58. 
"His  rule  was  confirmed  by  Pope  Liiberius  in  363. 

24 


ASCETICS  AND  THEIR  SOCIETIES 

ing  I,  the  most  complicated.  The  groups  were  sub- 
divided under  leaders  subject  to  the  abbot,  who  when 
the  movement  extended  was  himself  under  the  superior 
of  the  mother-house.  A  steward  managed  finances,  and 
the  steward  of  Tabenna  supervised  the  accounts  of  other 
treasurers.  Meals  were  frugal  and  were  eaten  in  silence, 
save  as  lections  might  be  recited  from  the  Bible.  Twice 
daily  there  was  common  prayer,  and  communion  was  re- 
ceived on  Saturday  and  Sunday.  There  was  a  three- 
years'  probation  for  postulants.  Before  the  founder 
died  he  had  in  his  own  coenobium  fourteen  hundred 
monks,  while  seven  thousand  altogether  obeyed  his 
authority.  Hilarion,  Ephraem  Syrus,  Basil  the  Great, 
and  even  Athanasius  bore  the  rule  to  foreign  parts.  By 
the  fifth  century  some  seventy-five  thousand  men  in 
Egypt  alone  were  the  votaries  of  this  institution.  It 
acquired  power  in  the  Western  Church  also,  continuing 
its  hold  until  displaced  by  the  institute  of  Benedict. 

The  Basilian  monks  chiefly  belong  to  the  history  of 
the  Greek  Church.  They  early  became  very  numerous, 
but  many  of  their  converts  were  dispersed  during  the 
iconoclast  persecutions  of  the  eighth  century.  The  order 
comprises  priests,  lay  brothers,  cenobites,  cellites,  and 
hermits  in  solitudes.  The  term  Caloyers,  or  Calogeri 
(Kakayepoi) ,  good  old  men,  is  generally  given  to  Greek 
monks.  Russia  has  been  the  place  of  chief  extension  of 
the  Basilian  Order.  The  Ruthenians  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary and  Poland  are  communities  of  the  same  founda- 
tion, which  was  represented  in  Italy  and  in  Spain  till 
1835.  Among  other  orders  following  the  rule  of  St. 
Basil  are  the  Melchites  of  Libanus,  the  Bartholomites® 
of  the  Armenian  rites,  named  from  St.  Bartholomew's 
Church,  Genoa,  where  they  centered  for  three  and  a 
half  centuries  to  1659.    A  very  few  Basilians  have  been 

'The  same  name  was  borne  by  an  order  instituted  in  Germany  in 
1640  by  Bartholomew  Holzhauser,  and  which  spread  to  Hungary,  Poland, 
ftnd  Spain,  but  which  did  uot  survive. 

25 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

domiciled  in  the  United  States,  and  in  a  modem  com- 
munity house  in  Toronto,  Canada.  In  its  later  history 
Oriental  monaehism  was  instrumental  in  keeping  na- 
tional spirit  and  religion  alive  in  Russia  and  Greece 
during  times  of  oppression. 

On  the  whole,  Greek  monaehism  is  mainly  important 
on  account  of  the  individual  ascetics  whom  it  produced. 
These  men  knew  little  or  nothing  of  justification  by 
faith  or  of  the  deeper  work  and  cleansing  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  but  they  displayed  the  most  ardent  enthusiasm 
for  righteousness.  The  genius  of  Tennyson  has  forever 
placed  one  of  them  in  the  admiration  of  the  world. 
Simeon  Stylites,  or  Simeon  the  Pillar  Saint,  was  a  shep- 
herd's son  in  Asia  Minor.  He  lived  in  the  first  half  of 
the  first  century,  and  early  entered  a  monastery,  where 
he  was  much  too  austere  to  suit  his  superiors.  Being 
angry  at  him  for  his  self-tortures,  one  day  the  abbot 
ordered  him  stripped,  when  it  was  found  that  he  had 
taken  a  piece  of  the  well-rope  and  wound  it  about  his 
body  until  it  had  become  buried  in  his  flesh.  Remov- 
ing the  rope  with  great  difficulty,  and  healing  his  sores, 
he  sent  the  zealous  youth  away  to  become  famous  for 
his  piety  and  self-tortures.  Soon  his  imaginative  spirit 
hit  upon  the  scheme  which  gave  him  his  name.  For 
thirty  years  he  lived  upon  the  top  of  a  column,  braving 
heat  and  cold,  moisture  and  sunshine,  taking  food  but 
once  a  week  and  bowing  his  head  to  his  feet  many  times 
daily,  while  about  the  base  of  the  pillar  kings  and  peasr 
ants  knelt  to  do  homage  and  to  ask  the  saint's  blessing. 
In  a  rude  and  selfish  age  this  life  of  self-immolation 
produced  a  miraculous  effect,  and  even  savages  were 
moved  thereby  to  give  up  their  idolatries  for  the  Chris- 
tian sacrament.  However  fanatical  they  may  be,  per- 
sonal sacrifices  are  never  absurd,  nor  can  they  fail  to 
impress  the  selfish  and  sinful.  For  the  sake  of  such 
characters  one  would  like  to  forgive  Eastern  monaehism 

26 


ASCETICS  AND  THEIR  SOCIETIES 

that,  as  Montalembert  points  out,  in  spite  of  its  exam- 
ples of  righteousness  it  ultimately  yielded  to  the  pres- 
sure of  its  environment  and  regenerated  nothing.^** 

The  rise  of  monachism  in  the  Western  Church  was 
due  to  the  Life  of  St.  Anthony,  brought  to  Rome  in 
340  by;  Athanasius^^  and  presented  as  a  noble  example 
to  those  Christians  who,  both  as  devotees  and  as  patriots, 
grieved  over  the  widespread  social  degeneracy  of  the 
times.  The  imagination  of  Christendom  was  touched 
and  a  great  number  of  establishments  sprang  up,  as 
a  whole  far  less  inclined  than  in  the  East  to  abstraction 
or  to  extreme  asceticism.  Hard  and  continuous  labor 
was  probably  both  the  result  of  and  in  turn  was  con- 
tributory to  the  Western  monks'  more  practical  temper. 
Among  the  names  which  are  identified  with  the  forma- 
tive and  purest  period  of  Occidental  monachism  are 
Eusebius  of  Vercelli;  Ambrose,  **clarum  et  venerabile 
nomen;*'  the  distinguished  scholar,  Jerome;  Chrysostom, 
the  Christian  Cicero;  Martin  of  Tours,  and  Augustine, 
the  great  Latin  father,  who  in  Africa  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury instituted  the  class  of  hermits  who  later  were 
known  as  Augustinians. 

St.  Augustine  was  born  at  Tagaste,  Numidia,  in  354. 
His  father,  Patricius,  was  a  pagan;  but  Monica,  his 
mother,  was  a  Christian,  who  lovingly  taught  her  son 
the  precepts  of  her  faith.^^  Yet  for  many  years  the 
pure  life  and  teachings  of  his  mother  exerted  little  in- 
fluence upon  the  youth.  He  devoted  himself  to  pleasure 
and  fell  into  grievous  sin.  It  was  intended  that  he 
should  become  a  rhetorician,  and  he  went  to  Carthage 

"Montalembert,  "Monks  of  the  West,"  VoL  I,  Book  2,  p.  220. 

"This  eminent  theologian  and  conqueror  of  the  Arian  heresy  was  re- 
ally a  man  of  deep  sympathy  with  saintly  character  and  deeds.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Anthony.  "Saint  Athanasius,"  Bush,  chapter  xxiv, 
"His  Character  as  a  Man." 

""It  was  said  of  Monica,  St.  Augustine's  mother,  that  twice  a  day 
she  came  to  the  house  of  God,  and  would  not  have  omitted  her  oblation  at 
the  altar,  though  a  lion  and  a  dragon  stood  in  her  path."  "The  Life  of 
George  Herbert,"   Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Kaowledge,  p.  264. 

27 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

to  prepare  himself  for  this  profession,  where  he  fell  into 
philosophical  speculations,  becoming  for  nine  years  a 
disciple  of  the  heretical  sect  of  the  Manichees,  but  at 
length  he  discovered  their  error  and  left  them.  In  383 
Augustine  went  to  Rome,  and  thence  to  Milan,  where 
he  was  to  teach  rhetoric.  There  he  heard  and  met  Am- 
brose, whose  eloquent  discourses,  together  with  his  own 
studies  in  the  Scriptures  and  some  examples  of  true 
conversion  to  which  his  attention  was  drawn,  led  him  to 
embrace  the  Christian  faith,  and  entirely  transformed 
his  life.  After  his  conversion,^^  about  386,  he  returned 
to  Africa,  sold  his  estate,  gave  the  proceeds,  save  for  a 
moderate  support,  to  the  poor,  and  lived  for  three  years 
a  retired  life,  giving  himself  to  profound  study  and  to 
writing.  Then  he  began  to  preach  with  extraordinary 
success,  and  in  a  few  years  became  Bishop  of  Hippo, 
spending  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  devoted  labors. 

At  the  beginning  of  his  work  at  Hippo  he  set  up  a 
monastic  establishment^*  and  he  laid  down  rules  for 
the  conduct  of  monks,  whether  or  not  he  ever  formu- 
lated a  complete  rule.  His  instructions  were  superseded 
by  those  of  Benedict,  but  were  resuscitated  in  the  time 
of  Charlemagne  and  are  found  in  the  Austin  Canons 
of  the  eleventh  century.^''  The  Canons  and  Hermits  of 
St.  Augustine  both  claim  the  Bishop  of  Hippo  as  their 
founder.  Martin  Luther  was  a  member  of  the  Hermits. 
It  will  be  seen  by  the  facts  already  given  that  mona- 
chism  was  established  by  men  of  high  Christian  char- 
acter— of  sincere  piety,  joined  to  deep  mystical  tend- 
encies. Its  principle  was  the  annihilation  of  individu- 
alism that  men  might  be  wholly  possessed  by  Grod.  Cel- 
ibacy was  to  prevent  attachment  to  one^s  fellows;  pov- 
erty  was   to   prevent   attachment   to   temporal   goods; 

""Historical  Sketches,"   Newman,   chapter  viii,  is  a  most  discrimi- 
nating account  of  Augustine's  conversion. 
""Monastic  Life,"  Allies,  p,  63. 
» "Monks  and  Monasteries,"  Wfshart,  p.  118, 

28 


ASCETICS  AND  THEIR  SOCIETIES 

obedience  was  to  prevent  self -attachment.  The  strength 
and  weakness  of  this  philosophy  is  apparent,  and  one 
can  easily  understand  how  both  the  best  and  most  as- 
piring souls  and  the  laziest  and  most  selfish  were  drawn 
to  the  standards  raised.  Gross  evils  soon  crept  into  all 
monastic  institutions,  but  these  should  not  lead  us  to 
forget  the  high  aims  and  lofty  character  of  the  founders. 
The  close  of  the  early  Christian  period  found  the  reli- 
gious communities  which  had  been  independently  estab- 
lished in  the  Western  Church  in  a  state  of  growing  dis- 
ordcr.^^ 

Not  a  few  thoughtful  men  even  in  that  early  age 
were  hostile  to  the  principles  underlying  monasticism. 
Neander  compares  with  the  great  reformer  himself  one 
Jovinian,  who  disputed  the  teaching  that  any  merit  is 
to  be  found  in  celibacy,  fasting,  or  poverty.  He  ob- 
jected to  saint  and  relic  worship,  and  declared  that  a 
Christian  might  retain  his  property  and  make  good  use 
of  it.  Jovinian  was  condemned  as  a  heretic  at  Milan 
390  A.  D.,  but  the  emperors,  both  Christian  and  pagan, 
sought  to  restrain  the  increasing  emigration  to  places 
of  seclusion,  while  the  stoutest  defenders  of  the  monks 
were  compelled  to  admit  the  fact  that  gross  evils  had 
appeared  among  them.  Many  were  lazy  and  dissolute. 
''Shaven  heads  lied  to  God."  Jerome,  Ambrose,  Augus- 
tine sought  to  cure  the  immorality  which  existed,  but 
vice  and  virtue  remained  in  close  proximity  until  deadly 
diseases  spread  themselves.  From  450  A.  D.  there  was 
for  half  a  century  an  almost  total  loss  of  monastic  vigor. 
It  was  evident  to  all  that  some  general  discipline  was 
needed.  This  was  furnished  in  a  new  rule  which  inau- 
gurated the  mediaeval  type  of  monachism. 

"For  the  miserable  state  of  Europe  at  this  time  see  the  hint  in  "The 
Monastic  Life,"  Allies,  p.  120.  Woodhouse,  "Monasticism,"  pp.  67-70, 
describes  the  condition  into  which  the  monks  had  fallen. 


29 


ni 

RISE  OF  MBDIJSYAL  BROTHERHOODS 

BENEDICT  TO  CLUNY.    REFORMED  ORDERS. 

If  with  Hallam  we  regard  the  Middle  Ages  as  opening 
with  the  sixth  and  ending  with  the  sixteenth  century, 
we  find  that  this  period  began  with  a  remarkable  move- 
ment in  the  history  of  religious  orders.  There  was  cer- 
tainly need  enoiiigh  of  a  fresh  beginning.  At  the  close 
of  the  fifth  century  Europe  was  in  a  most  deplorable 
state.  Corruption  and  confusion  had  laid  hold  of  every 
form  of  life.  All  that  was  most  valuable:  art,  science, 
authority,  even  religion,^  seemed  destined  to  irretriev- 
able ruin. 

For  these  conditions  no  remedy  was  visible  in  the 
brotherhoods.  They  were  without  discipline  or  coher- 
ence, and  apparently  had  entered  upon  a  permanent  de- 
cline. Especially  had  the  Oriental  asceticism  no  adapta- 
tion to  Western  needs,  and  without  some  new  and  re- 
markable infiuence  monasticism  would  perish. 

This  influence  came  from  a  cave  at  Subiaco,  forty 
miles  west  of  Rome,  where  had  fled  in  494  a  youth  of 
fourteen,  the  last  scion  of  the  lords  of  the  Sabine  Nursia, 
surrendering  fortune  and  fame,  and  seeking  to  escape 
sin  and  to  give  himself  up  to  holiness.  His  scanty  food 
was  supplied  by  stealth  from  the  pittance  of  Romanus, 
an  inmate  of  the  nearby  monastery,  and  was  let  down 
the  precipitous  cliff  on  which  the  building  stood  by  a 
rope  to  which  a  bell  was  attached  that  he  might  be  aware 

1  Hallam,   •'The  Beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  Cb.  52.     Also  Mon- 
talembert,  IV,  3. 

30 


RISE  OF  MEDIEVAL  BROTHERHOODS 

of  its  coming.  Once,  it  is  said,  the  devil  broke  the  rope,^ 
but  he  could  not  thwart  the  inventive  friendliness  of 
the  good  monk. 

In  the  quiet  and  darkness  of  his  grotto  and  its  en- 
vironment the  youth  passed  a  number  of  years,  on  oc- 
casion conquering  the  evil  propensities  of  the  flesh  \)y 
rolling  naked  in  the  briers  and  thorns  near  his  cave 
mouth.^  When  some  shepherds  discovered  him,  clad  in 
a  coarse  sheep-skin,  they  began  by  mistaking  him  for  a 
wild  beast,  and  ended  by  seeking  his  counsel  as  a  saintly 
teacher.  The  spot  where  Benedict  passed  his  novitiate 
became  a  shrine.  To  visit  it  became  a  favorite  pilgrim- 
age,* and  it  has  been  regarded  as  the  cradle  of.  later 
monasticism. 

The  foundation  of  the  Benedictine  Order  in  the  sixth 
century,  the  Clunian  Reform  of  the  eleventh,  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Mendicant  Orders  in  the  thirteenth, 
the  foundation  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  the  sixteenth, 
have  been  described^  as  the  four  great  landmarks  in 
the  history  of  Western  monasticism.  Evidently  the 
point  of  view  is  the  history  of  monastic  reforms,  whose 
first  and  greatest  leader  was  Benedict.  No  sooner  was 
his  sanctity  discovered  than  his  ability  was  recognized, 
and  though  he  was  so  austere  in  his  first  office  as  su- 
perior of  the  Monastery  of  Vicovarro  that  the  inmates 
sought  to  poison  him,^  yet  when  he  abdicated  and  re- 
tired to  his  beloved  cavern  he  was  soon  surrounded  by 
a  multitude  of  voluntary  disciples  by  whose  aid  he 
founded  twelve  monasteries.  About  530  A.  D.  he  re- 
moved to  Monte  Casino,  on  whose  precipitous  eminence 

2Milman,    "History  of  Latin  Christianity,"  III,  VI,  25. 

"S.  Gregor. 

♦Petrarch,  who  visited  Suhiaco,  says,  "Illud  numane  et  devotum 
Bpecus,  quod  qui  viderunt  vidisse  quod  ammodo  Paradisi  limen  credunt.  ' 

^Hamack,    "Monasticism,"   V,   65. 

•It  is  recorded  that  he  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  over  the  vessel 
containing  the  poison,  and  it  was  miraculously  broken.  Gregor.,  "Dial.," 
ii,  3. 

31 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

he  created  the  most  famous  of  monastic  institutions, 
transforming  a  very  ancient  temple  of  Apollo  into  a 
place  of  Christian  prayer,  and  composing  here  his  cele- 
brated rule/  destined  to  replace  all  its  predecessors 
throughout  Europe,  a  result  which  was  virtually  accom- 
plished by  the  seventh  century. 

The  site  of  the  cradle  of  Occidental  monasticism,  and 
for  thirteen  hundred  years  the  capitol  of  the  Benedic- 
tines, impresses  the  traveler  with  a  greatness  of  its  own, 
which  the  glory  of  the  surrounding  prospect  but  serves 
to  heighten.  *'Here  is  the  most  ancient  and  illustrious 
monastery  in  Christendom,  the  home  of  a  society  whose 
history,  whose  members,  whose  wealth,  learning,  and 
literary  treasures  and  whose  numerous  progeny  give  it 
a  singular  eminence.'*^  It  is  thought  that  perhaps  it 
was  the  very  flavor  of  Paganism  still  lingering  about  the 
place  which  attracted  Benedict  to  this  seat  of  power, 
as  indeed  under  him  it  became.  The  land  belonged  to 
the  father  of  Placidus,  one  of  the  young  scions  of 
wealthy  families  sent  to  be  near  the  founder,  to  whom 
he  gave  it.®  The  success  which  attended  the  settlement 
here  Dante  causes  Benedict  himself  to  declare,  truly  if 
somewhat  boastfully: 

That  mountain  on  whose  slope  Casino  stands 

Was  frequented  of  old,  upon  its  summit. 

By  a  deluded  folk  and  ill  disposed; 

And  I  am  he  who  first  up  thither  bore 

The  name  of  him  who  brought  upon  the  earth 

The  truth  that  so  much  sublimateth  us. 

And  such  abundant  grace  upon  me  shone. 

That  all  the  neighboring  towns  I  drew  away 

From  the  impious  worship  that  seduced  the  world.^^ 

'Mabillon  thinks  the  original  copy  to  have  been  made  by  Benedict 
himself  at  Monte  Casino  about  528  A.  D.,  Reg.  S.  Bened.  The  autograph 
copy  of  the  rule  was  destroyed  at  the  time  of  the  Saracen  spoliation,  884. 

*  "Cities  of  Our  Faith,"    Caldwell,   pp.   152-3. 

•Guizot,   "Hist.  Civil.,"  II,  p.  73. 

"Caldwell,   op.  cit.,  p.   155. 

32 


RISE  OF  MEDIEVAL  BROTHERHOODS 

It  has  been  usual  to  describe  the  Benedictine  Order 
as  requiring  the  severest  type  of  life,  and  judging  by- 
modem  standards  this  would  seem  to  be  true.  However 
plain  as  appear  the  articles  concerning  food  and  lodging 
tested  by  our  ideas,  they  permitted  greater  abundance 
of  the  necessaries  of  life  than  was  then  common  to  the 
middle  and  lower  classes  from  whom  the  order  was 
largely  recruited.  Strict  obedience,  temperance,  and 
chastity  were  required,  but  the  ascetic  rigors  of  Eastern 
rules  were  softened.  The  members  of  the  brotherhood 
were  considered  as  children  to  be  carefully  and  partic- 
ularly legislated  for  as  to  all  matters  of  conduct  and 
even  of  spirit,  Benedict,  like  Wesley  and  all  lovers  of 
order  and  system,  directing  as  to  the  most  trivial  mat- 
ters, usually  with  a  sincerely  benevolent  and  considerate 
purpose.  To  plain  living  was  joined  high  thinking. 
A  portion  of  the  day  was  to  be  devoted  to  study,  the 
founder  specifying  only  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  and 
the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  but  establishing  a  principle 
which  by  the  influence  of  Cassiodorus,  his  contemporary, 
bore  glorious  fruits  in  learning  and  in  literature. 
Prayer  was  a  regular  exercise  of  the  life  exacted,  but 
it  is  especially  the  honor  of  the  Benedictine  Order  that 
it  ennobled  labor.  Through  military  influences  all  kinds 
of  toil  had  sunk  into  dishonor,  and  Benedict  performed 
no  greater  service  than  that  of  teaching  the  men  of  his 
day  how  holy  an  occupation  is  work  sanctified  by 
prayer.  This  lesson  the  world  has  never  wholly  for- 
gotten. A  monk's  day  was  one  round  of  busy  employ- 
ments ;  manual,  mental,  and  spiritual  devotions  keeping 
him  in  constant  activity.  The  result  was  health,  useful- 
ness, and  power.  The  Benedictines  flourished,  culti- 
vated wide  fields,^^  and  absorbed  all  rivals,  at  first  by 
the  spread  of  their  principles,  but  later  by  submission 
to  the  direction  of  Rome — a  policy  which,  though  it 

"  Montalembert,   "Monks  of  the  West,"  II,  67. 

3  33 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

brought  its  advantages,  finally  involved  the  society  in 
the  general  fortunes  of  the  Church. 

For  a  long  time,  however,  the  Benedictine  monk  was 
an  efficient  promoter  of  civilization  and  of  Christianity 
unto  regions  difficult  and  dangerous.  ''Moreover  it  was 
he  who,  in  his  cloister,  with  the  incessant  din  of  arms 
about  him,  preserved  and  transcribed  ancient  manu- 
scripts, both  Christian  and  pagan,  and  who  recorded 
his  observations  of  current  events,  thus  giving  us  the 
best  materials  we  now  possess  for  the  history  of  remote 
times.  "^^  Later  a  widespread  weakening  of  Christian- 
ity injured  all  its  branches,  including  even  the  strongest. 
At  length  it  appeared  as  if  monasticism  in  the  "Western 
Church  had  run  its  course ;  it  seemed  to  have  fallen  like 
a  spent  arrow  to  the  ground,  whence  the  strong  arm  of 
Benedict  had  impelled  it.  * '  It  had  become  worldly,  and 
vulgarly  worldly,  not  by  a  hair's  breadth  higher  than 
the  world  at  large.  In  the  tenth  century  pope.  Church, 
and  monastery  alike  seemed  to  have  reached  the  last 
stage  of  decrepitude."^^ 

The  evil  that  befell  the  Benedictines  as  well  as  that 
which  came  upon  even  more  renowned  successors  is 
bemoaned  by  the  founder  in  the  vision  of  Dante.  After 
lamenting  that  walls  w^hich  once  were  an  abbey  are  be- 
come a  den  of  robbers,  he  exclaims: 

The  flesh  of  mortals  is  so  very  soft. 

That  good  beginnings  down  below  suflSce  not 
From  springing  of  the  oak  to  bearing  acorns. 

Peter  began  with  neither  gold  nor  silver. 
And  I  with  orison  and  abstenance. 
And  Francis  with  humility  his  convent. 

And  if  thou  lookest  at  each  one's  beginning. 
And  then  regardest  whither  he  has  run. 
Thou  shalt  behold  the  white  turned  into  brown.^* 

""Mediaeval  History,"  Stille,  p.  339. 

"Harnack,   "Monasticism,"   VI,   81. 

""Paradiso,"  Longfellow's  Tr.  Canto  XXII,  p.  564. 

34 


EISE  OF  MEDIEVAL  BROTHERHOODS 

Such  woe  as  this  is  not  reserved  for  heaven  alone. 
How  many  a  pure  heart  has  lived  long  enough  on  earth 
to  mourn  the  failure  of  his  institution. 

The  Clunian  reformation  of  monastic  life  came  just 
in  time  to  save  it  from  extinction.  This  movement  was 
in  the  nature  of  a  federation  and  general  discipline  of 
all  monasteries.  Its  beginnings  were  laid  in  the  ninth 
century  by  the  union  attempted  and  partially  attained 
under  the  direction  of  Saint  Benedict  of  Aniane,  but 
an  effective  central  organization  was  not  accomplished 
until  the  eleventh  century,  when  Cluny,  founded  by 
Duke  William  of  Acquitaine  in  910  to  the  honor  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  on  the  basis  of  the  Bene- 
dictine rule,  became  the  one  great  monastery  and  a  vast 
number  of  others  were  made  dependent.  Up  to  this 
time  the  monasteries  had  been  under  control  of  the 
bishop;  now  the  abbot  of  Cluny  appointed  all  the  su- 
periors of  the  other  institutions,  and  the  term  ** Order*' 
could  be  properly  applied  to  monastic  societies,^^  its  use 
with  reference  to  the  earlier  societies  being  a  modem 
and  inexact  description,  yet  having,  of  course,  some  jus- 
tification. In  the  next  century  Peter  the  Yenerable  was 
the  recognized  authority  in  two  thousand  dependent 
monasteries.^^  The  life  of  the  monks  was  strictly  regu- 
lated. Silence,  with  communication  by  signs,  character- 
ized most  of  the  time,  and  obedience  ruled.  Hospitality 
and  charity  were  constantly  exemplified.  Poor  and 
strangers  usually  exceeded  the  number  of  the  monks. ''^^ 
Abbot  Odilo  exhausted  the  storehouse,  and  even  melted 
the  sacred  vessels,  to  succor  the  needy  during  famine. 
Later,  wealth  and  prosperity  rewarded  early  goodness 
with  the  usual  result,  but  meantime  the  strong  combi- 
nation effected  under  Clunian  discipline  revived  and 
extended  the  strength  of  all  monastic  institutions. 

"John  R.  Header,  Ed.   "American  Almanac." 

""Age   of  Hildebrand,"    Vincent,   p.    16. 

""Hist,  of  Christian  Church,"   Schaflf,  IV,  p.  369. 

35 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Among  the  new  societies  which  sprang  up  during 
the  period  of  this  quickening  of  interest  was  the  Car- 
thusian Order,  formed  by  St.  Bruno  about  1086  near 
Grenoble,  France.  With  six  comrades,  Bruno,  inspired 
to  the  deed  by  the  open  contempt  of  his  bishop  for 
piety  and  religion,  established  in  a  wilderness  of  naked, 
precipitous  rocks  and  of  sterile  hills  ^^  the  famous  Grand 
Chartreuse,  a  monastery  which  for  the  first  half  century 
had  no  written  rules,  and  was  for  some  time  unconnected 
with  other  monasteries.  The  first  name  of  the  brothers 
is  said  to  have  been  **Poor  of  Christ.  "^^  The  monks 
were  to  have  no  intercourse  with  the  world,  and  little 
with  one  another.  No  woman  was  allowed  to  set  foot 
within  the  precincts,  ** knowing  as  we  do,''  said  Dom 
Guigo,  **that  neither  wise  man,  nor  prophet,  nor  judge, 
nor  the  entertainer  of  God,  nor  the  sons  of  God,  nor  the 
first  created  of  mankind  fashioned  by  God's  own  hands, 
could  escape  the  wiles  and  deceits  of  woman.  "^^  The 
rule  of  the  Carthusians,  at  least  until  amended  in  1582, 
was  the  most  rigorous  of  all  followed  in  monastic  insti- 
tutions. Not  only  fasting,  but  blistering  and  bleeding, 
were  used  to  aid  in  conquering  evil  affections.  There 
were  many  other  austerities :  the  wearing  of  hair  shirts, 
abstinence  from  flesh  meat,  and  similar  devices  to  con- 
quer passion;  but  the  founder  loved  letters  and  taught 
his  associates  zeal  for  science  and  learning.  The 
brothers  were  required  to  do  manual  labor  and  to  tran- 
scribe ancient  documents  and  important  records  of  the 
time.  The  original  monastery  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Carthusian  Order  for  eight  hundred  years,  until  1903, 
when  the  French  Government  dispossessed  it  with  mo- 

"  Thomas  Gray  visited  the  place  and  wrote  in  the  album  of  the  mon- 
astery   an    Alcaic    Ode,    contained    in    his    poetical    works    with    life    by 
Hitford,  p.  198,  and  which  describes  the  scenery — 
"Per  invias  rupes,  fera  per  juga 
Clivosque  praeruptos,   nemorumque  noctem." 
""The  Somerset  Carthusians,"  Thompson,  p.  5. 
'""Monks  and  Monasteries,"   Wishart,  p.  190. 

36 


RISE  OF  MEpi^YAL  BROTHERHOODS 

nastie  houses  generally.  The  strictness  of  this  society 
prevented  great  popularity ,2^  but  it  produced  some  noted 
representatives,  including  Hugh  of  Avalon,  *'in  his  re- 
lations with  Henry  II  and  Coeur  de  Lion, ' '  says  Ruskin, 
*'to  my  mind  the  most  sacerdotal  figure  known  to  me  in 
history."  Bom  and  reared  during  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  Crusades,  his  father,  having  divided  his  castles  and 
personal  property  among  his  other  children,  took  Hugh 
at  eight  years  of  age  with  him  into  the  Priory  of  Villar- 
benoit,  where  the  lad  was  brought  up  with  a  severity 
which  would  have  turned  the  average  child  from  all 
goodness.  He  was  flogged  for  the  least  delinquency, 
and  was  not  allowed  to  laugh.  ''Little  Hugh,'*  his 
father  would  say,  ''I  am  bringing  thee  up  for  Christ. 
Joking  is  not  for  thee.'*  In  spite  of  these  oppressions 
the  lad,  ''dear  to  God  and  man,"  eagerly  absorbed  the 
sweetness  of  heavenly  doctrines,  became  proficient  in 
religious  knowledge,  and  grew  up  modest,  courteous,  and 
strong.  A  visit  to  La  Grande  Chartreuse  inspired  in 
the  youth  a  desire  to  practice  the  austerities  and  to  join 
the  company  of  that  order.  He  found  it  the  aim  of 
both  the  ecclesiastics  and  lay-brethren  "to  maintain 
strict  poverty,  to  throw  aside  all  superfluities,  and  to 
forget  all  temporal  matters  in  the  contemplation  of 
heavenly  prospects,"  and  to  the  infinite  sorrow  of  the 
prior  of  Villarbenoit,  who  declared  that  to  lose  him  was 
like  giving  up  the  light  of  his  eyes,^^  he  joined  this  body. 
He  became  a  model  of  prayer  and  piety,  and  retained 
such  humility  that  he  refused  election  as  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln, only  accepting  the  place  after  a  second  vote  as 
an  act  of  obedience.  In  his  high  office  Hugh  proved  to 
be  firm  and  incorruptible.  Worldly  rank  was  vanity  to 
him,  and  king's  favors  nothing.  His  justice  and  charity 
to  all  men  became  widely  famed,  and  it  is  said  that  when 


«  "English  Monastic  Life,"   Gasquet,  p.  222. 
*2  "Magna  Vita,  S.  Hugonis." 

37 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

in  1200  he  died,  not  only  Christians  but  Jews  thronged 
his  funeral,  and  the  latter  were  loud  in  their  sorrow 
for  the  removal  of  one  who  in  a  time  when  they  were 
despised  and  rejected  dared  to  show  them  Christlike 
love.  It  may  be  that  there  was  another  side  of  the 
character  of  this  man  which  has  not  been  represented 
in  his  biography,  but  it  can  hardly  be  disputed  that  he 
stands  among  his  contemporaries  as  a  shining  example 
of  gentle  yet  fearless  virtue.  To  have  attracted,  held, 
and  developed  one  such  character  as  this  is  honor  enough 
for  any  brotherhood.  Yet  our  attention  is  now  drawn 
to  another  reforming  order,  and  to  an  even  more  dis- 
tinguished hero  of  faith  and  of  righteousness. 

The  Cistercian  Order  ^*  was  founded  by  Robert  of 
Molesme,^*  and  refounded  by;  Stephen  Harding,  an  Eng- 
lishman resident  in  France,  who  was  its  lawgiver  and 
who  for  twenty-five  years  ruled  its  affairs.  The  founda- 
tion was  due  to  a  reaction  in  the  minds  of  part  of  the 
Benedictines  of  Molesme  against  the  relaxations  which 
riches  and  power  had  brought  into  their  institution.  In 
the  year  1098  they  removed  to  Citeaux,  in  Burgundy, 
and  in  a  wild  solitude  they  constructed  their  new  home 
of  piety  out  of  the  trunks  of  trees  which  they  felled  for 
this  purpose.  Duke  Odo,  learning  of  their  work,  in- 
quired into  it  and  gave  them  aid,  and  adopting  a  white 
garb  in  place  of  the  black  habit  of  the  Benedictines, 
they  took  upon  themselves  strict  observance  of  the  Rule 
of  St.  Benedict,  and  were  especially  devoted  to  the  ideals 
of  unity  and  charity.    They  prospered,  and  though  there 

^An  appreciative  account  of  the  separation  of  twenty-one  monks,  in- 
cluding the  abbot,  prior,  and  sub-prior,  from  the  Benedictine  community 
at  Molesme,  and  who  sought  to  form  a  stricter  religious  observance,  is 
found  in  "History  of  the  Cistercian  Order,"  chapter  i.  The  author  is 
a  monk  of  the  Cistercians. 

2*  The  chief  source  for  his  life  is  Sirius.  "Origines  Cisterciensium," 
Alexander  Prize  Essay,  Mason,  Trans.  Royal  Hist.  Soc,  New  Series  XIX, 
p.  169  ff,  is  a  carefully  wrought  account  of  the  beginnings  of  the  Cister- 
cian movement. 

38 


RISE  OF  MEDIEVAL  BROTHERHOODS 

had  been  no  intention  of  establishing  a  new  order,  other 
foundations  were  soon  made,  all  being  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Citeaux  and  free  from  local  episcopal  jurisdic- 
tion. The  Cistercians  benefited  society  by  devotion  to 
agriculture,  literature,  and  charity.  Until  the  middle 
of  the  fourteenth  century  growth  and  religious  earnest- 
ness were  marked.  At  this  time,  however,  a  decline  oc- 
curred which  was  due  to  the  usual  causes  and  which  re- 
quired later  reformations. 

The  most  famous  of  the  Cistercians,  and  a  shining 
figure  in  all  Christian  history,  is  Bernard  of  Clairvaux. 
Born  in  Burgundy  at  his  father's  castle  of  Fontaines 
near  Dijon,  in  1091,  he  may  have  been  named  for  his 
maternal  grandfather,  Bernard,  feudal  lord  of  Mont 
Bar.  His  father,  Tescelin,  or  Tesselin,  was  a  wealthy 
knight  who  followed  the  Duke  of  Burgundy ;  his  mother, 
Alith  (Alethe,  or  Aletta),  was  a  woman  of  ability.  Both 
Knight  Tesselin  ^^  and  his  wife  were  devout  and  zealous 
Christians,  living  the  life  in  which  they  believed,  and 
possessing  much  moral  courage.^^  In  the  earliest  recol- 
lections of  the  child  Bernard  may  have  been  the  general 
enthusiasm  and  widespread  migration  of  the  First  Cru- 
sade, carrying  away  so  many  thousands  who  never  re- 
turned, and  among  whom  was  the  great  feudal  lord 
whom  his  father  served.  The  youth  and  early  manhood 
of  the  boy  were  spent  in  the  midst  of  the  most  vivid 
scenes,  attended  with  the  strongest  emotions.  At  school 
the  lad  made  rapid  progress,  was  thoughtful  and  obe- 

25  "Recordatus  autem  vir  venerabiUs  Tesselinus  timoris  Dei,  et  judi- 
ciorum  divinorum."     Opera  S.  Bern,  Vol.  II,  Col.  1282. 

^The  tale  of  Tesselin's  refusal  to  be  drawn  into  a  personal  combat 
indicates  both,  the  strength  of  his  character,  and  his  good  reputation  for 
fearlessness.  "Mindful  of  the  Golden  Rule,  though  the  more  skillful  of 
the  two  in  the  use  of  weapons,  and  expecting  the  victory  which  would 
bring  him  large  advantage,  he  made  peace  with  his  adversary  and  re- 
linquished all  that  had  been  in  dispute."  "Bernard  of  Clairvaux," 
Storrs,  p.  139.  "In  that  stern  time,"  says:  Morison,  "Life  and  Times 
of  St.  Bernard,"  p.  3,  "when  force  was  generally  law,  a  man  must  have 
been  very  sure  both  of  his  courage  and  piety  to  act  thus." 

39 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

dient,  and  was  careful  to  keep  his  boyhood  pure.^^  The 
death  of  his  mother,  just  as  he  was  passing  into  youth, 
profoundly  impressed  his  mind,  while  it  left  him  free 
to  choose  his  own  career.  He  might  follow  his  father 
as  a  knight  and  soldier;  he  might  select  letters,  this 
temptation  being  strong;  he  does  give  himself  to  re- 
ligion. To  this  step  Bernard  was  moved  by  the  image 
of  his  mother  as  well  as  by  his  Lord's  Spirit.  He  was 
riding  to  join  his  brothers  who  were  besieging  a  castle, 
when  a  vision  of  his  mother's  disapproval  checked  him. 
To  a  church  by  the  wayside  he  betook  himself  to  weep 
and  to  pray,  and  there  his  life  was  ordered  for  him. 
From  all  save  the  service  of  God  he  turned  his  face. 
In  the  first  zeal  of  his  conversion  Bernard  hastened  like 
another  Andrew  to  persuade  his  brothers  to  join  him 
in  his  Christian  purpose,  and  to  his  great  pleasure  they 
consented,  even  Gerard,  the  brilliant  and  wise  soldier, 
at  length  being  won  over,  as  well  as  his  uncle,  the  Lord 
of  Touillon,  and  the  child  Nivard,  youngest  of  the 
family.  How  splendid  this  evidence  of  the  mingled  ar- 
dor and  love  of  the  man,  and  of  the  respect  in  which 
he  was  held  by  his  kin! 

In  1112  Bernard  entered  the  Order  of  Citeaux,  and 
in  this  step  he  was  followed  by  thirty  young  nobles,  in- 
cluding four  brothers.  Up  to  this  time  the  little  com- 
munity had  not  prospered,^^  but  the  new  accession 
brought  vigor  to  the  dying  body,  which  grew  until  it 
seemed  wise  to  swarm  into  a  new  place.  In  1115  an- 
other colonization  occurred,  and  this  time,  in  spite  of 
his  youth,  Bernard  was  made  leader  of  the  new  move- 
ment.   "With  twelve  companions  he  went  to  a  valley  in 

"  "Omnibus  benignus  et  gratus,  domi  simplex  et  quietus,  foris  rarus, 
et  ultra  quam  credi  posset  verecundus;  unsquam  multum  loqui  amans, 
Deo  devotus,  ut  puram  sibi  pueritiam  suam  conservaret."  "Vita  S. 
Bern,"   i,  Col.  2408. 

^  Abbot  Stephen's  message  to  Jesus  Christ,  sent  by  a  dying  monk 
by  whom  he  stated  the  plight  of  Citeaux  by  reason  of  the  age  and  death 
of  its  members  and  asked  for  aid,  is  simply  told.  "S.  Bernard,'^  Spar- 
row-Simpson, p.  18. 

40. 


RISE  OF  MEDIEVAL  BROTHERHOODS 

the  province  of  Langres,  known  as  the  Valley  of  Worm- 
wood, and  in  this  wilderness,  where  the  earnest  monks 
were  to  endure  great  privations  and  trials  of  courage 
and  faith,  he  established  the  Bernardines  in  the  famous 
cloister  of  Clairvaux.  From  this  center  the  ardor  and 
virtue  of  Bernard  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
throughout  Europe.  He  arbitrated  between  rival  popes,^* 
measured  swords  with  the  tyranny  of  nobles,  produced 
mystical  writings  of  the  most  exalted  nature,  defended 
apostolic  doctrine,  and  preached  the  second  crusade.  He 
fearlessly  attacked  abuses  and  evil-doers.  His  messages 
to  princes  and  to  popes  indicate  a  sincere  and  truthful 
spirit,  and  his  presence  and  personality  were  powerful. 
He  was  a  steadfast  advocate  of  monachism,  founding  in 
different  European  provinces  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
three  religious  settlements,  and  bringing  large  compa- 
nies into  their  membership  .^"^  He  died  in  his  sixty-third 
iyear,  and  was  the  first  Cistercian  canonized  by  the 
Church.  His  latter  days  were  saddened  by  the  failure 
of  his  crusade,  which  began  so  auspiciously  that  it 
almost  depopulated  many  cities  and  towns  of  Germany, 
but  which  failed  to  accomplish  its  end  in  Syria,  it  is 
said  by  reason  of  the  treachery  of  Christian  nobles. 
Bernard  received  much  blame  for  the  loss  of  so  many 
men  and  so  much  treasure,  and  about  the  same  time  he 
discovered  traitors  in  his  own  order,  who  made  unjust 
use  of  his  name  and,  when  discovered,  uttered  calumnies 
against  him.^^  His  memory  survives  the  sayings  of  de- 
tractors, however,  and  he  is  praised  by  all  branches  of 

2»  "Life  and  Times  of  St.  Bernard,"  Morison,  pp.  162-175.  Vigoroug 
account  of  Bernard's  defense  of  the  rights  of  Innocent  II  against 
Anacletus. 

'""Cistercian  Legends,"  tr.  by  Henry  Collins,  p.  7,  gives  an  in- 
stance, not  improbably  correct,  of  the  persuasive  power  of  Bernard  in 
inducing  worldly-minded  men  to  assume  the  religious  habit. 

'1  Batisbonne,  American  Ed.,  p.  447  flF,  gives  the  story  of  the  incred- 
ible perfidy  of  Nicholas,  Bernard's  secretary,  who  stole  his  master's  seal 
and  used  it  in  important  documents.  When  detected  he  traduced  tha 
good  man  who  had  trusted  him. 

41 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

the  Church.  Luther  says  of  him,  ''If  there  ever  lived 
on  earth  a  God-fearing  and  holy  monk,  it  was  Saint 
Bernard  of.  Clairvaux/'  A  modem  writer  declares 
Bernard  to  have  been  ''one  of  the  purest  realizations  of 
Christian  principle  which  has  ever  appeared  in  human 
flesh  and  blood.  "^^  He  also  quotes  a  contemporary  of 
Bernard,  who  says,  "He  was  one  to  whom  many  mir- 
acles were  attributed,  but  the  greatest  miracle  which 
he  displayed  was  himself.'' 

It  is  sad  to  note  that  an  order  which  could  produce 
a  character  of  whom  such  tributes  as  these  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be  even  approximately  just,  was  after  a  time 
given  over  to  sensuality,  pride,  avarice,  and  strife. 
Monasticism  has  never  long  remained  pure,  and  the 
Cistercian  order  from  the  first  contained  weak  and  un- 
worthy members,  who  increased  in  numbers.  At  last 
reforms  were  imperative,  and  they  were  variously  at- 
tempted by  Dom  Martin  de  Vargas,  who  in  1425  founded 
at  Monte  Sion,  near  Toledo,  the  Congregation  of  the 
Observance  of  St.  Bernard  of  Spain,  by  John  de  la  Bar- 
riere,  who  in  1563  organized  the  Congregation  of  the 
Feuillants,  and  by  a  number  of  others  whose  improve- 
ments were  more  or  less  genuine  and  successful. 

"But  the  most  celebrated,  if  not  the  most  extensive, 
reformation  of  the  Cistercian  Order  was  affected  by  John 
le  Bouthillier  de  Ranee. ' '  ^^  This  worldly  nobleman  had 
come  into  possession  of  the  income  of  many  monas- 
teries,^* among  them  that  of  Grande  Trappe,  in  Nor- 
mandy. Feeling  weary  of  his  gay  life,  about  1664  he 
came  to  this  institution  as  abbot,  and  applied  to  the 

'2  "Dectures  on  S.  Bernard  of  Clairvanx,"  W.  J.  Sparrow-Simpson, 
p.  207. 

^"Concise  History  of  the  Cistercian  Order,"  by  a  Cistercian  Monk, 
p.   132. 

^  Op.  supra,  '  '.Many  patrons  committed  the  grievous  abuse  of  pre- 
senting, at  the  death  of  the  abbot  of  the  monastery  over  which  they 
claimed  a  right,  the  available  income  of  such  monastery  to  any  favorite 
they  pleased,  whether  a  regular  or  merely  secular  person." 

42 


RISE  OF  MEDIAEVAL  BROTHERHOODS 

monks  the  austerity  of  the  original  Cistercian  rule,  lead- 
ing them  in  stern  practices.  Thus  the  Grande  Trappe 
gained  fame  and  became  a  mother-house  of  Trappes  and 
Trappists,  as  the  monasteries  and  their  inmates  came  to 
be  called,  though  the  real  title  was  Reformed  Cistercians. 
The  Trappists  are  among  the  strictest  of  all  Roman  or- 
ders, and  many  who  wish  to  flee  from  secular  life  have 
taken  refuge  with  them.  Their  most  characteristic  re- 
striction is  silence,  which  is  absolute,  save  in  earing  for 
guests  or  in  speaking  to  superiors.  Other  necessary  com- 
munications are  made  by  signs.  The  Trappist  sleeps  in 
his  habit,  save  for  the  shoes.  Only  the  superiors  have 
a  separate  room.  Novices  are  received  after  two  years' 
probation,  and  are  professed  three  years  later.  The 
choir-brothers  are  those  who  are  or  who  intend  to  be- 
come priests,  and  the  other  members  are  lay-brothers 
and  oblates,  the  latter  not  taking  the  vows  but  keeping 
the  rule  while  in  the  monastery.  Manual  work,  prayer, 
and  charity  are  the  professed  routine  of  the  lives  of  all 
who  live  in  a  Trappist  House  of  Silence.^^  This  order  has 
undertaken  mission  stations  in  several  countries.  In  the 
catacombs  of  St.  Calixtus,  near  Rome,  the  traveler  is 
guided  by  Trappist  monks,  who  are  in  charge  of  this 
famous  burial-place,  and  who  are  as  glib-tongued  as  if 
loquacity  rather  than  silence  had  been  their  lifelong  prac- 
tice. The  English  spoken  by  one  of  these  men  seemed 
to  me  as  marvelous  as  his  anxiety  to  save  the  Protestant 
from  the  error  of  his  ways  was  commendable. 

85  Title  of  an  article  in  the  "Catholic  World,"  March,  1902,  giving  a 
description  of  the  Trappist  rule  and  practices,  which  reads  strangely  to 
those  not  acquainted  with  survivals  of  mediaeval  institutions.  Also  see 
Huysman's  "Ea  Route," 


43 


lY 

THE  MENDICANTS 

FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI  AND  DOMINIC 

One  of  the  greatest  of  fraternal  institutions  was  that 
of  the  Mendicants,  or  begging  friars,  who  entered  largely 
into  the  life  of  the  Church  from  the  opening  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  Clunian  reform  seemed  to 
many  not  sufficiently  severe.  The  luxury  and  arrogance 
of  the  older  orders  indicated  a  worldly  rather  than  a 
Christian  spirit.  A  new  imitation  of  Christ  ^  sprang  up, 
attended  by  the  highest  ascetic  ideals.  Christ  was  to 
be  imitated  by  ministering  to  aU,  by  living  in  poverty, 
by  following  Him  in  all  His  passion  even  to  martyrdom, 
if  not  of  the  body,  then  of  the  spirit.  James  Freeman 
Clarke  says :  **The  Mendicant  Friars,  like  the  Methodists, 
were  the  democrats  in  religion.  The  word  *  friar,'  *frere,' 
means  *  brother,'  and  they  renounced  the  priestly  title 
of  Father  for  this  humbler  one  of  Brother.^  The  Mendi- 
cants made  themselves  poor  that  they  might  be  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  poor.  Instead  of  flying  from  the  world 
to  save  their  own  souls,  they  went  into  the  world  to  save 
the  souls  of  others.  Like  the  Methodists,  they  went  to 
find  the  stray  sheep,  to  look  for  those  whom  the  Church 
neglected.  Like  the  Methodists,  they  were  itinerant  out- 
of-doors  ministers.  They  administered  the  Eucharist  on 
a  portable  altar.  Like  the  Methodists,  they  drew  crowds 
to  hear  them  and  caused  the  parish  churches  to  be  de- 
serted. Traveling  from  house  to  house,  they  were  every- 
where at  home  among  the  people — ^their  advisers,  sym- 

*  "Europe  in  the  Middle  Age,"  Thatcher  &  Schwill,  p.  330. 
'Page  13,  nota  1. 

44 


THE  MENDICANTS 

pathizers;  rejoicing  with  those  who  rejoiced,  weeping 
with  those  who  wept."^  Another  account  of  the  origin 
of  this  movement  says,  **To  a  very  considerable  extent 
the  rise  of  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  was  a  strug- 
gle after  a  freer  and  less  mechanical  religion  than  Medi- 
aeval Rome  allowed  to  her  children."*  A  large  number 
of  new  orders  emphasizing  these  views  came  into  exist- 
ence, but  soon  the  four  societies  known  as  Franciscans, 
Dominicans,  Carmelites,  and  Augustines  received  the 
recognition  of  the  Church.  Gregory  X  in  a  general 
council  at  Lyons,  in  1272,  suppressed  the  extravagant 
multitude  of  mendicants,  as  he  called  them,  and  confined 
their  organizations  to  those  above  named. 

Of  these  the  oldest  was  probably  that  of  the  hermits 
of  St.  Augustine,  who,  as  has  been  previously  stated, 
trace  their  original  foundations  to  the  good  Bishop  of 
Hippo,  and  who  from  societies  of  recluses  of  the  eleventh 
century  existing  in  Italy  without  a  constitution,  were 
combined  into  one  order  in  the  year  1256  by  Pope  Alex- 
ander IV  under  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine.  The  order 
having  become  degenerate  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
reformed  Augustinian  societies  were  called  into  being, 
including  the  Saxon  order  to  which  Luther  belonged, 
and  which  after  leaving  it  he  so  severely  denounced. 
The  Augustinians  have  come  down  to  the  present  time, 
having  convents  and  houses  in  Great  Britain  and  in  the 
United  States. 

It  was  at  one  time  piously  held  that  the  society  called 
the  Order  of  Our  Lady  of  Mt.  Carmel,  or  Carmelites, 
was  founded  by  Elijah  the  prophet,  but  it  has  been  con- 
clusively shown  to  date  from  the  crusader  Bertrand, 
Count  of  Limoges.  In  1156  with  ten  companions  he 
founded  a  monastery  on  Mt.  Carmel.  It  was  not  till 
1245  that  Innocent  IV  countenanced  their  change  from 

'"Events  and  Epochs  in  Religious  History,"  James  Freeman 
Clarke,  p.  100. 

*'*Wyckliflfo  and  the  Lollards,"  Carrick,  p.  17. 

45 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

hermit  to  community  life  and  ranked  them  with  the  men- 
dicants. The  most  famous  Carmelite  name  is  that  of  a 
woman,  for  houses  of  both  sexes  had  been  founded,  and 
St.  Theresa  became  a  Carmelite  novice  in  1531,  and  she 
labored  unceasingly  for  a  stricter  discipline  not  only 
among  the  nuns  but  among  men  of  the  order.  There 
are  Carmelite  fathers  at  the  present  time  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Canada,  but  the  number  is  not  large. 

The  great  Mendicant  orders  were  those  built  about 
the  famous  and  representative  characters  of  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi  and  St.  Dominic.  These  are  among  the  signifi- 
cant names  of  all  Church  history.  About  them  have 
gathered  a  host  of  legends,  true  and  false.  They  alike 
represent  a  strong  and  sincere  reaction  against  the 
wealth  and  corruption  of  the  older  orders,  and  against 
the  pride  and  luxury  of  the  regular  clergy.  In  char- 
acter they  widely  differed.^  These  two  men  met  in  Rome 
in  1216,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  induce  them  to 
unite  in  one  institution,^  but  Francis  could  not  see  the 
wisdom  of  this,  and  though  both  took  the  Augustine  rule 
and  secured  papal  sanction,  the  orders  were  separate. 
Each  of  these  men  required  not  only  that  his  followers 
should  personally  have  no  property,  but  also  that  they 
should  not  as^a  body  possess  property.  They  were  to 
w^ork  for  a  livelihood  or  to  live  on  alms. 

St.  Francis  was  born  at  Assisi,  near  Florence,  about 
1182.  He  was  baptized  Giovanni,  or  John,  but  his  fa- 
ther, who  was  a  wealthy  cloth  merchant,  had  him  in- 
structed in  French  as  a  preparation  for  the  business  for 
which  he  was  intended.  The  name  Francis  was  gained 
in  this  way.'^  It  was  not  an  extended  education  which 
the  youth  received,  though  he  was  not  the  illiterate  he 
is    sometimes    represented.      His    father's    money    and 

'"History  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  Duruy,  p.  289. 

^  "Scenes  and  Characters  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  E.  Cutts,  p.  40.     The 
author  contrasts  strongly  the  spirit  of  St.  Francis  and  of  St.  Dominic. 
'•'Saints  and  Festivals  of  the  Christian  Church,"  Brewster,  p.  437. 

46 


THE  MENDICANTS 

foolish  pride  made  him  much  courted  and  corrupted  by 
the  young  scions  of  titled  families,  and  he  was  tempted 
into  wildness  of  conduct.  But  his  mother,  Pica,  would 
not  despair  of  him ;  but  when  told  of  his  excesses,  would 
say,  **I  am  very  sure  that  if  it  pleases  God  he  will  be- 
come a  good  Christian."  At  fourteen  Francis  was  taken 
into  business  with  his  father,  and  at  first  gave  attention 
to  his  work,  which  however  he  came  to  neglect  for  the 
frivolities  of  social  life.  In  the  conflict  between  Perugia 
and  Assisi  in  1202,  with  ardor  he  enlisted  on  the  side 
of  his  city,  and  was  taken  prisoner  when  Assisi  was  de- 
feated, remaining  for  a  year  in  captivity.  At  this  time 
he  surprised  his  friends  by  his  gayety  and  his  high  ex- 
pectations of  a  great  future  for  himself.  He  dreamed 
of  adventure  and  of  conquest,  and  is  said  to  have  often 
exclaimed,  **You  will  see  that  one  day  I  shall  be  adored 
by  the  whole  world. '  *  When  permitted  to  return  home, 
Francis  resumed  his  former  dissipations,  giving  himself 
to  them  so  earnestly  that  he  became  seriously  sick,  and 
for  long  weeks  looked  both  life  and  death  in  the  face. 
As  in  many  similar  instances  the  time  of  physical  was 
also  the  time  of  moral  crisis,  yet  on  his  recovery  he  again 
joined  his  old  associates  and  planned  a  career  of  pleasure 
and  of  glory.  An  ambitious  enterprise  on  which  he  em- 
barked did  not  satisfy  him.  He  returned  home,  and 
then  in  a  famous  grotto  he  entered  upon  a  spiritual 
struggle  so  intense  and  protracted  as  to  test  every  fiber 
of  his  strength.  He  saw  the  evil  of  his  past  life  and 
wept  over  it.  At  last  to  his  friends  who  sought  to  lure 
him  back  to  the  old  ways  he  gave  a  sumptuous  banquet, 
and  when  they  missed  him  from  its  chief  merry-making 
they  found  him  plunged  in  a  reverie  so  profound  that 
he  seemed  unconscious  of  all  about  him.  'H^VTiat  is  the 
matter  r'  they  cried.  ''Don't  you  see  that  he  is  think- 
ing of  taking  a  wife?"  one  jested.  ''You  are  right," 
said  Francis,  "and  the  woman  I  am  going  to  wed  is  the 

47 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

noblest,    richest,    most    beautiful   that   you   have    ever 
seen."^    They  understood  this  afterward. 

Francis  had  always  been  deeply  affected  by  the  sight 
of  poverty,  and  from  a  boy  up  had  ministered  lavishly 
to  the  needy.  He  now  gave  himself  anew  to  this  work, 
visiting  even  the  lepers,  and  increasing  the  great  affec- 
tion in  which  he  was  held  by  the  many  whom  he  had 
befriended.  He  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  receiving 
little  religious  benefit  therefrom.  Seeing  how  smaU  were 
the  offerings  of  pilgrims,  he  emptied  his  purse,  and 
borrowing  the  rags  of  a  beggar  in  return  for  the  loan 
of  his  own  garment,  he  stood  for  a  day  on  the  piazza 
fasting  with  outstretched  hand,  gaining  a  great  victory 
over  his  natural  pride.  On  his  return  home  his  charities 
and  his  reveries  alienated  the  sympathy  of  his  father. 
Those  to  whom  he  went  for  spiritual  advice  as  a  rule 
failed  to  understand  him.  At  last  one  day  in  the  poor 
chapel  of  St.  Damien  as  he  was  praying  a  vision  came 
to  him,  and  a  voice  speaking  in  an  ineffable  language. 
The  light  for  which  he  prayed  came  in  great  effulgence. 
Jesus  accepted  his  oblation  of  himself,  and  from  that 
time  the  career  of  St.  Francis  was  fixed.®  He  decided 
to  quit  his  father's  house.  He  disposed  of  all  his  pos- 
sessions and  turned  over  the  proceeds  to  the  priest  of 
St.  Damien  to  restore  his  chapel,  but  his  father  seized 
the  money,  and  in  wounded  pride  sought  to  have  Francis 
banished.  He  was  tried  before  the  bishop,  who  advised 
him  to  give  up  his  inheritance.  Francis  retired  for  a 
short  time  and,  coming  back  naked,  with  his  clothing  in 
a  bundle,  he  returned  it  to  his  father,  who  with  no  com- 
passion took  the  package.  Francis  declared  that  he  had 
called  Pietro  father,  but  now  desired  only  God.  The 
bishop  took  him,  trembling  with  emotion  and  cold,  un- 
der his  own  mantle,  and  the  populace  at  first  secretly 

""History  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,"  Le  Monnier,  p.   49. 
•"Life  of  St.   Francis,"    Sabatier,  pp.  55-7. 

48 


THE  MENDICANTS 

and  later  openly  gave  him  their  hearts.  For  a  long  time 
the  general  thought  was  that  he  was  a  madman.  But 
the  reality  of  his  conversion  was  so  apparent  and  his 
words  as  he  began  to  preach  were  so  simple  and  direct 
that  he  awakened  profound  convictions.  His  influence 
was  greatly  increased  by  the  restlessness  caused  by  the 
lax  condition  of  the  times  and  by  the  lack  of  spirituality 
in  the  Church.  This  enthusiast  became  a  knight  of  pov- 
erty and  of  discipleship,  another  vision  which  came  to 
him  in  the  tiny  oratory  of  Portiuncula,  still  preserved, 
serving  to  confirm  his  consecration  to  this  life.  He  had 
doubtless  heard  of  the  Poor  Men  of  Lyons  and  of  the 
zeal  of  Peter  Waldo,  but  while  the  way  was  in  part  pre- 
pared by  similar  movements,  from  which  also  he  received 
inspiration,  his  work  was  not  imitative,  but  was  the  de- 
velopment of  his  own  experience  and  example.^®  The 
toils  and  pieties  of  Francis  lasted  to  the  very  end  of  his 
days.  About  two  years  before  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1226,  it  is  recorded  that  in  a  vision  he  was  told 
that  he  should  endure  spiritual  martyrdom,  that  in  his 
body  he  should  have  the  sufferings  of  the  Cross,  but 
in  his  soul  a  seraph's  love.  When  the  vision  faded,  on 
his  body  were  the  five  wounds  of  Christ 's  passion,  which, 
it  is  said,  were  seen  by  seven  hundred  witnesses.^^  What- 
ever may  be  thought  of  this  account,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  of  the  spiritual  crucifixion  of  its  subject. 

The  record  of  physical  miracles  wrought  by  St.  Fran- 
cis is  a  short  one,  and  it  is  mixed  with  higher  elements. 
Such  spirits  as  his  are  not  greatly  impressed  with  ma- 
terial signs  and  wonders ;  it  is  with  religion  they  are  con- 
cerned. There  are  pretty  stories  about  this  simple  man, 
of  birds  which  listened  to  his  sermons  and  crowded  to 
be  stroked  by  his  tunic,  and  of  springs  which  at  his 

"  Sabatier  says,  "The  same  causes  produced  in  all  quarters  the  same 
effects." 

"For  an  excellent  discussion  of  the  stigmata,  see  "St.  Francis  of 
Assisi,"   Canon  Knox  Little,  pp.  245-250  and  Appendix  I. 

4  49 


CHEISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

word  arose  in  desert  places.  Affection  has  led  me  to 
preserve  the  rose-leaf  given  me  by  the  monk  who  ex- 
hibited the  little  garden  at  Portiuncula,  where,  it  is  said, 
Francis  once  threw  himself  in  order  to  chasten  his  body 
and  to  conquer  its  evil,  and  whose  bushes  no  longer  have 
thorns,  but  bear  blood-drops  on  their  leaves.  All  of 
these  accounts  have  their  value  in  symbolism,  for  this 
was  a  man  whom  gentle  spirits  could  love,  who  was 
himself  a  fount  of  refreshing,  and  whose  self -conquests 
and  sacrifice  have  taken  thorns  out  of  much  unregen- 
erated  human  nature  and  have  marked  it  with  holy 
blood;  and  as  the  power  of  a  strong  spirit  over  a  sus- 
ceptible body  has  never  been  fathomed,  but  is  known  to 
be  strong,  who  would  care  to  deny  to  so  sweet  and  pas- 
sionate a  nature  as  Francis  the  stigmata  even  of  the  di- 
vine atonement? 

Bernard  of  Quintavalle,  a  rich  and  noble  layman, 
was  the  first  to  give  up  his  property  to  follow  St.  Fran- 
cis into  a  devoted  life.  Soon  there  were  many  others. 
Francis  drew  up  a  monastic  rule  for  the  guidance  of 
his  adherents.^^  Appeal  was  made  to  Rome,  and  Inno- 
cent III  gave  a  limited  approval  and  appointed  Francis 
superior  general  of  the  Friars  ]\Iinor,  called  also  Bare- 
footed or  Gray  Friars.  Innocent's  successor  Honorius 
formally  instituted  the  order,  which  spread  rapidly  and 
widely. 

It  is  a  beautiful  picture  which  the  early  Franciscans 
present.  They  were  taught  by  their  leader  to  live  what 
Thomas  a  Kempis  later  wrote.  If  they  ate  the  bread  of 
charity,  they  also  gave  with  open  hands.  "Work  was 
honorable;  laziness  contemptible.  All  undertook  some 
trade  or  engaged  in  any  menial  service  by  which  they 
might  minister  to  the  necessities  of  others.  They  called 
themselves  lesser  or  weaker  brothers,  and  refused  offices 

"Rule  of  Francis,  "Historical  Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  Em- 
erson, pp.  344-9.  Rule  and  Testament,  "Source  Book  for  Mediaeval  His- 
tory," Thatcher  &  McNeal,  498  et  seq. 

50 


THE  MENDICANTS 

and  honors.  Always  they  served  and  drew  others  to 
service.  The  peasant  John  saw  Francis  at  one  of  his  fre- 
quent tasks, — sweeping  out  a  dirty  church.  "Brother, 
give  me  the  broom,"  he  said.  *'I  will  help  you."  So 
he  finished  the  work,  and  then  joined  the  company  of 
workers  for  Christ,  making  a  most  excellent  member, 
save  that  he  too  literally  copied  his  superior:  when 
Francis  spat,  coughed,  or  sighed,  he  did  the  same;  but 
when  gently  rebuked  he  took  it  well,  and  became  so  good 
and  useful  that  after  he  died  he  was  remembered  not  as 
Brother  John,  but  as  Brother  St.  Joha.  Egidio  was  an- 
other of  these  interesting  laymen,  true  throughout  to 
the  principles  of  the  order,  especially  concerning  labor 
and  poverty.  He  delighted  in  missions  and  traveled 
wddely,  always  working  his  way  where  he  went  to  preach. 
He  was  versatile  in  labors.  At  Brindisi  he  borrowed 
a  jug  and  carried  water.  At  Ancona  he  procured  willow 
and  made  and  sold  baskets.  In  the  olive  season  he 
helped  gather,  and  in  the  grape  season  he  was  in  the 
vintage.  Sent  to  Rome,  he  walked  several  leagues  to  a 
forest  and  brought  in  loads  of  wood.  This  is  typical  of 
his  business  methods:  Carrying  wood,  he  met  a  woman 
who  wished  to  purchase,  and  they  agreed  on  a  price ;  but 
when  they  arrived  at  her  house  she  discovered  what  he 
was  and  pressed  a  larger  sum  upon  him.  *'My  good 
lady,  I  will  not  allow  myself  to  be  overcome  with  ava- 
rice,'' said  Egidio,  and  departed  merrily  with  nothing 
for  his  pains.  Always  these  men  worked,  for  wages  or 
without ;  always  they  preached ;  always  they  shared  their 
crust  with  the  needy.^^  They  were  not  communists  seek- 
ing the  goods  of  others,  nor  did  they  decry  property. 
They  simply  attempted  to  show  to  a  turbulent,  selfish, 
lustful  age  the  spirit  of  Jesus,  that  they  might  lead  men 
to  Him.  It  was  a  method  of  evangelism.  Of  course  it 
was  too  good  an  example  and  style  of  living  to  last,  and 

"  For  many  captivating  accounts  see  Sabatier,  chapter  viii. 

51 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

even  now  it  would  find  its  defeat  in  the  temper  of  the 
times.  But  let  us  thank  God  that  once  in  Judea  and 
again  in  Umbria  there  were  men  who  loved  Jesus  Christ 
above  all  else  and  their  neighbors  as  themselves. 

St.  Francis'  followers  all  too  soon  lost  the  qualities  of 
their  leader  and  were  conformed  to  the  greedy  world. 
But  twenty-five  years  after  his  death  they  were  like  the 
other  orders.  The  Mediaeval  Church  apotheosized  the 
body  and  canonized  the  name  of  Francis,  but  frustrated 
and  slew  his  soul.  Yet  many  great  and  good  men 
were  raised  up  by  his  influence,  and  the  Franciscan 
order  has  produced  not  a  few  famous  members,  among 
these  Alexander  of  Hales,  Duns  Scotus,  Roger  Bacon, 
and  Popes  Sixtus  V  and  Clement  XIV.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  questions  related  to  the  severity  of  the  rule 
caused  a  division  into  the  two  classes  of  Observants^* 
and  Conventuals,  the  former  holding  to  the  more  rigor- 
ous life.  The  Capuchins  are  a  reformed  Franciscan 
order,  founded  1526  by  Matteo  di  Bassi,  of  Urbino. 
For  a  time  .this  society  was  allied  with  and  ruled  by 
the  Conventuals,  but  in  1617  it  was  made  independent 
and  prospered,  being  widely  represented. 

The  great  and  vehement  rival  of  the  Franciscan  order 
was  instituted  in  Languedoc,  France,  and  was  confirmed 
by  the  pope  in  1216.  The  official  name  of  the  Domin- 
ican order  is  Fratres  Praedicatores ;  in  English,  Friars 
Preachers,  or  Preaching  Brethren.  Its  founder,  Do- 
mingo de  Guzman — St.  Dominic — also  instituted  the  so- 
ciety in  Spain  and  in  Italy,  and  its  extension,  like  that 
of  the  order  of  Francis,  became  world-wide.  In  Eng- 
land the  'black  cloaks  of  the  Dominicans  gave  them  the 
name  of  Black  Friars,  and  in  Italy  they  were  called 
Jacobins  from  the  Church  and  hospital  of  St.  Jacques, 
where  they  were  first  established  in  that  country. 

"  The  Friars  of  the  Strict  Observance  were  established  in  Spain, 
1489,  by  John  de  Puebla,  and  became  a  separate  congregation  \xntil  1897, 
■when  various  factions  of  Observantines  were  united  by  Leo  XIII  as 
* 'Friars  Minor."  p-o 


THE  MENDICANTS 

The  birth  and  childhood  of  St.  Dominic  are  sur- 
rounded by  mediaeval  legends  and  portents.  His  mother 
is  said  to  have  dreamed  that  she  gave  birth  to  a  boy 
with  a  torch  in  his  mouth  which  set  the  world  on  fire. 
A  starry  radiance  encircled  the  font  where  the  preco- 
cious infant  was  baptized. ^^  He  gave  evidence  of  fu- 
ture devotion  by  creeping  from  his  bed  of  childhood  to 
prostrate  himself  upon  the  hard  boards  of  his  room.  At 
fifteen  he  went  to  the  university  afterward  called  that 
of  Salamanca,  and  there  he  studied  letters,  philosophy, 
and  theology.  It  is  said  that  as  a  student  he  once  sold 
his  clothes  to  feed  the  poor  in  time  of  famine,  and  he 
offered  himself  to 'be  exchanged  for  a  man  enslaved  by 
the  Moors.  He  is  thought  to  have  remained  at  the  uni- 
versity about  ten  years,  and  it  was  as  one  of  the  canons 
of  Osma  that  he  first  attracted  general  notice.  The 
heresies  of  the  Church  began  to  distress  him,  especially 
that  of  the  believers  in  Manichaean  errors.  Dominic  at 
once  found  his  mission  as  a  defender  of  the  Catholic 
truth.  A  papal  embassy  to  convert  heretics  excited  his 
wrath  because  of  its  worldly  display.  "How  can  you 
expect  success  with  all  this  secular  pomp?"  he  ex- 
claimed. *'You  must  throw  aside  all  your  splendor  and 
go  forth  as  the  disciples  of  old ;  barefoot,  without  purse 
or  scrip,  to  proclaim  the  truth."  He  at  once  acted  on 
his  own  principle,  and  drew  to  himself  followers.  In 
his  earlier  career  he  confined  himself  to  the  use  of  in- 
fluences intellectual  and  moral.  Later  he  encouraged 
and  instituted  harsher  measures  for  suppressing  heresy. 
While  he  may  not  have  lent  himself  to  the  purposes  of 
Simon  de  Monfort  in  his  atrocities  against  the  Albi- 
genses,  he  certainly  remained  his  friend,  and  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  conduct  of  de  Monfort  did  not  excite  his 
horror  as  it  should  have  done.  The  title  of  Founder  of 
the  Holy  Inquisition  proudly  boasted  for  Dominic  is 

"See  engraving,  page  1,  "History  of  St.  Dominic,"  Drane. 

53 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

one  of  the  severest  accusations  which  could  be  brought 
against  him.^^  He  spent  his  later  years  in  Rome,  su- 
perintending the  affairs  of  the  order/^ 

The  most  superficial  student  must  note  the  fidelity 
with  which  the  Franciscan  and  Dominican  orders  re- 
produced the  character  of  their  founders.  The  Domini- 
cans were  learned,  energetic,  dogmatic.  They  were  stern 
defenders  of  orthodoxy;  controversialists  of  voice  and 
pen  not  only,  but  of  inquisitorial  fire  and  sword.  The 
Franciscans  were  sympathetic  and  mystical,  in  some 
branches  allied  with  heretical  sects,  but  full  of  the  spirit 
of  devotion  to  Christ  and  of  love  for  the  people.  The 
strong  likeness  and  contrast  of  the  rival  leaders  is 
sharply  brought  out  in  these  words  of  an  able  writer: 
"One  was  an  Italian,  mystical,  fervid,  genial,  even  in 
his  asceticism ;  a  layman,  smitten  with  the  love  of  Christ 
and  with  enthusiasm  for  poverty;  a  mediaeval  Metho- 
dist,^* who  kindled  a  new  devotion  in  the  popular  heart. 
The  other  was  a  Spaniard,  a  countryman  of  Cortez  and 
Ignatius  Loyola;  a  trained  theologian,  an  ecclesiastic, 
with  more  intellect  and  less  poetry;  with  an  enthusiasm 
as  profound  but  less  genial,  with  even  more  inflexible 
purpose  and  keener  sagacity.  The  one  would  burn  her- 
etics for  the  glory  of  God;  the  other  would  be  burned 
himself  for  their  salvation.  Both  were  earnest;  the  one 
to  fierceness,  the  other  to  ecstasy.    Both  were  fanatics; 

^'  It  should  be  said  that  Jordan,  the  early  biographer,  does  not  men- 
tion the  Inquisition,  and  Herkless  ("Francis  and  Dominic,"  p.  92)  be- 
lieves that  the  Inquisition  was  certainly  not  organized  till  after  the  death 
of  Dominic.  Against  this  view  is  the  bull  of  Sixtus  V,  naming  him  as 
inquisitor  under  Innocent  III  and  Honorius  III. 

"The  "Hist,  of  St.  Dominic,"  by  Augusta  Theodosia  Drane,  repre- 
sents the  subject  as  Friend  of  God,  Image  of  Jesus  Cfhrist,  and  Lover  of 
Souls,  especially  chapter  xix,  and  the  final  chapter,  where  Dante  is 
largely  quoted  concerning  "the  loyal  lover  of  the  Christian  faith,  the 
holy  athlete,  gentle  to  his  friends  and  terrible  only  to  the  enemies  of 
truth,"   p.   477. 

"His  system  was  the  democracy  of  Christianity.  "Mediseval  Hist.," 
Stille,  p.  346. 

m 


THE  MENDICANTS^ 

but  Francis  was  the  fanatic  of  love :  Dominic,  the  fanatic 
of  wrath.  "i» 

Some  reference  should  here  be  made  to  an  order 
which  in  1487  was  placed  by  Innocent  III  on  a  level 
with  the  four  great  mendicant  orders.  It  is  that  of  the 
Servites,^^  or  Servants  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  was 
founded  in  Florence  in  1233  by  seven  merchants  who 
felt  admonished  to  renounce  the  world,  to  sell  their 
property  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor,  and  to  dwell  to- 
gether upon  alms.  Under  Philip  Benizi  they  made 
great  progress,^ ^  and  they  became  the  recipients  of  many 
pontifical  favors.  Though  impaired  by  the  Reformation, 
the  order  has  survived  to  modern  times  and  is  somewhat 
widely  represented. 

^"Cities  of  Our  Faith,"    Caldwell,  p.   200. 

^  Matthew  Paris,   or  Helyot,   in  loc. 

»  "Eccl.  Hist.,"   Mosheim,  Part  II,  chap,  ii,  sec.  20. 


55 


MILITARY  ORDERS 

KNIGHTS  AND  SOLDIERS  OF  CHRIST 

A  BRILLIANT  page  of  Christian  history  is  that  filled  with 
the  exploits  and  adventures  of  knightly  and  military 
orders.  Strange,  think  you,  that  men  should  have 
equipped  themselves  with  swords  and  armor  in  the  name 
of  the  Prince  of  Peace?  Not  difficult  to  understand, 
however,  when  one  has  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the 
times  in  which  chivalry  flourished,  and  easily  explained 
when  the  type  of  Christianity  then  known  is  properly 
apprehended. 

In  part  it  may  be  said  that  militant  Christianity  was 
due  to  political  conditions  and  compulsions.  Such  con- 
siderations do  not,  however,  apply  to  the  Crusades, 
which  were  the  product  of  religious  zeal,  and  certainly 
not  to  knight-errantry,  which  was  inspired  by  the  ambi- 
tions of  youth  and  the  lust  of  adventure,  yet  which  often 
combined  with  its  practice  so  many  high  qualities  that 
the  very  name  of  knighthood  still  has  power  to  move 
the  heart  and  to  inspire  eloquence.^ 

The  early  practices  by  which  knightly  brotherhood 
was  cemented  were  pagan,  and  sometimes  horrible.  The 
Knights  of  Constantinople  entering  into  alliance  with 

1  "The  age  of  chivalry  indeed  is  gone.  We  have  piled  away  its  hel- 
mets and  its  spears;  but  its  blazonry  is  invested  with  a  more  poetic 
charm.  Still  we  love  the  past.  We  love  the  heroic  in  men's  history; 
we  hate  to  divest  it  even  of  its  fictions.  The  independent  spirit  of  chiv- 
alry, bent  on  the  accomplishment  of  lofty  ends,*  without  calculation  of 
chances,  or  fear  of  failure,  so  generous  in  action,  so  munificent  in  cour- 
tesy, so  frank  in  friendship,  and  so  gallant  in  danger,  must  ever  have 
rare  attractions  to  the  enthusiastic  and  the  aspiring." — Montaigne. 

56     . 


MILITAKY  ORDERS 

the  French  Crusaders  drove  a  dog  between  the  two 
bands.  Cutting  the  poor  animal  in  twain  with  their 
Bwords,  they  declared  that  so  it  should  be  with  those 
who  did  not  keep  their  bond.  In  not  a  few  instances  the 
blood  of  contracting  knights  was  mingled  together  with 
wine,  of  which  both  parties  drank,  declaring  that  they; 
had  now  become  brothers  by  blood.  Such  revolting  rites- 
and  others  of  a  less  unlovely  nature  were  abolished  by 
Christianity,  and  brotherly  love  and  fealty  were  con- 
secrated before  the  altars  of  God,  being  hallowed  by 
prayers  and  the  Sacrament.^  The  very  institution  of  a 
Knight  was  attended  with  religious  observances  and 
meaning;^  and  the  knightly  commands  of  the  Middle 
Ages  were  extremely  devout  in  their  professions  of 
Christianity.  The  Crusades  were  not,  of  course,  estab- 
lished orders,  but  were  great  popular  movements  sweep- 
ing both  sexes  and  all  ages  into  vast  enthusiasms  and 
into  heroic  enterprises.  At  the  same  time  arose  the 
famous  organizations  whose  origin  and  purpose  must 
now  be  considered. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  knighthood,  down  to 
the  time  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  military,  and  also 

'Article  "Brotherhoods,"  "Chambers's  Journal,"  Vol.  46,  p.  261: 
*'The  new  brothers  confirmed  their  alliance  by  a  solemn  oath,  sworn  on 
the  Gospels,  and  by  receiving  the  wafer  broken  in  two,  as  a  witness  of 
their  engagement,  signifying  that  whoever  failed  in  the  fraternal  tmion 
should  thus  be  divided  from  Jesus  Christ." 

'  •  "The  ceremony  was  essentially  a  religious  one,  and  the  clergy  used 
sometimes  to  make  a  knight.  .  .  .  But  usually,  though  religious  cere- 
monies accompanied  the  initiation,  and  the  office  for  making  a  knight 
still  remains  in  the  Roman  Office  Book,  some  knight  of  fame  actually 
conferred  'the  high  order  of  knighthood.'  "  "Scenes  and  Characters  of 
the  Middle  Ages,"  E,  K  Cutts,  p.  409.  Athmole  says  that  the  first 
Christian  kings  in  giving  their  military  belt  in  token  of  knighthood 
kissed  the  new  knight  on  the  left  cheek,  with  the  words,  "In  honor  of 
the  Father  and  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  I  make  you  a  knight." 
"History  of  Knighthood,"  H.  Clark,  Vol.  I,  p.  1.  "According  to  In- 
gulf us,  'It  was  the  custom  of  the  English  before  the  Norman  invasion, 
that  he  who  was  to  be  regularly  admitted  to  the  degree  of  Knighthood 
should  on  the  eve  of  the  day  before  his  initiation  .  .  .  with  all  hu- 
mility and  compunction  of  heart,  confess  all  his  sins,  and  having  re- 
ceived absolution,  should  continue  the  whole  night  in  the  church,  exer- 
cising the  strict  offices  of  piety,  and  a  sincere  humiliation.'  "  Nicolas, 
vide  infra. 

57 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

that  the  early  knights  took  monastic  vows,  so  that  mo- 
nasticism  and  knighthood  were  closely  allied.  Modern 
orders  of  merit  are  to  be  regarded  as  an  outgrowth  of 
mediaeval  knighthood,  and  many  of  them  represent  the 
recognition  of  noble  character  and  deeds  rather  than  of 
birth  and  blood.  Such  orders  as  the  French  Legion  of 
Honor,  the  Order  of  Fidelity  of  Baden,  and  the  British 
Orders  of  the  Bath,*  of  Merit,  and  of  Distinguished 
Service,  and  in  some  sense  all  knightly  institutions,  are 
therefore  to  be  regarded  as  having  had  a  Christian  ori- 
gin, and  in  respect  of  their  purpose,  development.  The 
early  history  of  Knighthood  is  confused  by  poetic  leg- 
ends and  myths,  as  well  as  by  spurious  records  of  orders 
which  never  existed.^  It  is  also  a  commonplace  to  find 
relatively  modern  orders  claiming  a  purely  fictitious 
antiquity.  Under  the  class  first  named  is  the  legendary 
Order  of  the  Holy  Grail,  declared  to  have  been  founded 
by  Clovis.  The  Orders  of  Charles  the  Great  and  of 
King  Arthur  are  alike  imaginary. 

Major  Lawrence-Archer  says,  **0f  the  religious  or- 
ders of  knighthood,  that  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher,  per- 
haps erroneously  attributed  to  St.  Helena,  but  probablj^ 
instituted  in  1110  by  Baldwin  I,  King  of  Jerusalem,  is 
supposed  to  be  the  most  ancient.''^  This  author  quotes 
Hallam  in  support  of  his  view,  and  Clark  in  his  *' His- 
tory of  Knighthood ''  quotes  Favin  as  authority  for  the 
origin  under  Baldwin,  and  places  the  order  first  in  the 
list  of  those  instituted  in  Palestine.  But  it  is  not  be- 
lieved that  the  facts  relative  to  the  founding  of  Ejiights 
of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  are  known,  and  strictly  speak- 

*  The  "History  of  the  Orders  of  Knighthood,"  Sir  Nicholas  Harris 
Nicolas,  Vol.  Ill,  has  an  elaborate  account  of  this  order,  and  the  work 
as  a  whole  is  a  scholarly  exposition  of  modern  survivals  of  Knighthood. 

^For  a  list  of  doubtful  knightly  orders  see  "Orders  of  Chivalry," 
Maj.  J.  H.  Lawrence-Archer,  Introd.,  pp.  xxiii-xxv.  Some  of  these  or- 
ders are,  however,  believed  by  ft  number  of  respectable  historians  to  bo 
genuine. 

*0p,  cit.,  Introd.,  six. 


MILITARY  ORDERS 

ing  they  do  not  constitute  an  order  at  all,  being  rather 
a  confraternity  of  pilgrims  of  all  classes  who,  having 
gone  to  Jerusalem,  desired  to  receive  some  lasting  sign 
of  their  perilous  adventure,  and  thus  sought  to  be 
knighted  at  the  reputed  burial-place  of  Christ.  There 
were  no  common  possessions,  organization,  or  rule.  In 
1342  Pope  Clement  VI  officially  gave  charge  of  the 
Holy  Land  to  the  Franciscans,  who  entered  Syria  in 
1230,  and  through  severe  persecutions  and  at  cost  of 
many  martyrdoms  maintained  their  residence.  After 
1342,  therefore,  no  one  could  become  a  Kjiight  of  the 
Holy  Sepulcher  without  applying  to  the  Franciscans. 
The  Knights  are  often  confused  with  the  Canons  of  the 
Holy  Sepulcher.  The  institution  still  exists,  and  the 
pope  in  1907  reserved  to  himself  the  grand-mastership. 

Italy  gave  birth  to  the  military  friars,  the  Red  Cross 
Knights  being  founded  there  by  French  gentlemen  for 
the  relief  of  pilgrims.  The  great  military  orders  were 
the  Knights  Templars,  the  Hospitalers,  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  and  the  Brethren  of  the  Sword.  Some  men- 
tion should  also  be  made  of  the  Bohemian  Knights  of 
the  Cross. 

The  first  and  best  known  of  these  institutions,  that 
of  the  Knights  Templars,^  was  of  comparatively  humble 
origin.^  During  one  of  the  years  from  1117  to  1120 
A.  D.®  a  band  of  nine  French  gentlemen,  noting  the 
hardships  experienced  by  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  City, 
banded  themselves  together  for  their  safe  conduct  be- 
tween Jerusalem  and  Jericho,  that  they  might  without 
danger  bathe  in  the  sacred  waters  of  the  Jordan.  They 
assumed  the  rule  of  Augustine,  taking  the  usual  mo- 

*  The  literature  is  large,  including  such  names  as  Du  Puy,  Nicolai, 
Miinter,  Taaffe,  Wilike,  Woof,  Addison,  Mackey,  and  many  works  on 
Palestine  and  Freemasonry. 

»Milman,   * 'History  of  Latin  Christianity,"  Vol,  VI,  p.  384. 

•Authorities  vary  as  to  the  exact  year,  1118  being  that  most  com- 
monly assigned,  although  the  vow  was  perhaps  assumed  as  early  as  1113, 
recognitioa  being  received  later. 

59 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

nastie  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  adding 
the  defense  of  Holy  Sepulcher  and  the  protection  of 
Christian  wayfarers.^**  The  leaders  were  Hugh  de 
Payens  and  Geoffrey  de  St.  Aldemar  or  Omer,  valiant 
soldiers  who  had  fought  with  renown  at  the  Siege  of 
Jerusalem,  1099.  These  men  were  inflamed  with  min- 
gled religious  and  military  ardor.  They  called  them- 
selves Poor  Fellow-soldiers  of  Jesus  Christ.^^  For  a  few 
years  members  lived  in  dire  penury.  The  seal  of  the 
order  commemorates  the  fact  that  Hugh  and  Geoffrey 
had  but  one  horse  between  them,  two  knights  being  rep- 
resented mounted  on  a  single  charger.^^  By  1118  the 
order  had  so  far  commended  itself  to  Christian  interest 
that  Baldwin  II,  King  of  Jerusalem,  gave  them  a  hab- 
itation^^ within  the  sacred  enclosure  on  Mt.  Moriah  amid 
the  structures  erected  in  part  by  Justinian,  540  A.  D., 
and  in  part  by  Caliph  Omar,  640  approx.  As  the  palace 
wherein  they  dwelt  was  near  the  temple,  they  were  given 
a  street  running  between  the  two  structures  where  they 
might  keep  their  properties.  Hence  they  soon  styled 
themselves  **Milites  Templi" — Soldiers  or  Knights  of 
the  Temple.  Hugh,  who  was  elected  leader,  was  called 
*'The  Master  of  the  Temple,"  the  office  being  later 
known  as  ** Grand  Master."  The  banner  of  the  Knights 
was  half  black  and  half  white;  black  and  terrible  to 
foes,  white  and  fair  to  Christians.  Dugdale  says  that 
they  wore  on  their  heads  linen  coifs,  like  Serjeants  of 
law,  with  red  caps  over  them.     They  were  caparisoned 

i«"The  Origin  of  Freemasonry  and  Knights  Templars,"  Bennett, 
p.  129. 

""At  that  period  Knights  were  called  Brothers  (Pratres)  and  their 
guests  C?hrist's  Poor,  or  The  Poor,  without  any  consideration  of  their 
poverty  or  wealth,  for  it  was  the  name  given  to  the  most  opulent,  and 
even  to  royal  or  imperial  personages."  "Knights  Templars,"  Addison- 
Macoy,  p.   143. 

"  "Secret  Societies,  of  All  Ages  and  Countries,"  Chas.  Wm.  Hecke- 
thora,  Vol.  I,  p.  182. 

""The  king,  Baldwin  II,  assigned  them  a  portion  of  his  palace  for 
their  abode,  and  he  and  his  barons  contributed  to  their  support."  "Se- 
cret .Societies  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  Thos.  Keightley,  p.  189. 

60 


MILITARY  ORDERS 

in  mail,  with  long  white  cloaks,  and  they  affected  heavy 
beards.** 

Owing  in  no  small  part  to  the  novelty  of  their  plan 
and  work,  the  Knights  Templars  soon  attracted  wide- 
spread attention.  In  1138,  at  the  Council  of  Troyes, 
the  order  having  been  recognized  by  the  pope,  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux  revised  and  amended  their  rules  and 
formed  a  Code  of  Statutes  suitable  to  so  great  a  fra- 
ternity, which  also  he  proclaimed  in  a  famous  discourse, 
*'In  Praise  of  the  New  Chivalry."*"^  Houses  of  the 
Temple  sprang  up  in  various  countries.  The  swift  leap 
of  this  order  into  popularity  is  truthfully  described  by 
Addison:  *'An  astonishing  enthusiasm  was  excited 
throughout  Christendom  in  behalf  of  the  Templars; 
princes  and  nobles,  sovereigns  and  their  subjects  vied 
with  each  other  in  heaping  gifts  and  benefits  upon  them, 
and  scarce  a  will  of  importance  was  made  without  an 
article  in  it  in  their  favor.  Many  illustrious  persons 
on  their  deathbeds  took  the  vows,  that  they  might  be 
buried  in  the  habit  of  the  order.  Sovereign  princes,  quit- 
ting the  government  of  their  kingdoms,  enrolled  them- 
selves amongst  the  holy  fraternity  and  bequeathed  their 
dominions  to  the  master  and  the  brethren  of  the  Tem- 
ple.''*« 

From  all  this  adulation  and  enrichment  but  one  re- 
sult could  certainly  come.  **  Hence  they  departed  from 
their  original  humility  and  piety.  Palestine  was  lost, 
and  they  made  no  effort  to  recover  it;  but  frequently 
drew  the  sword — which  was  only  to  be  used  in  the  serv- 
ice of  God,  as  they  understood  the  phrase — in  the  feuds 
and  warfares  of  the  countries  they  inhabited.  They  be- 
came proud  and  arrogant.    "When  dying,  Richard  Coeur 

"•'History  of  Knighthood,"  H.  Clark,  Vol.  II,  p.  54. 

i^Keightley,  "Secret  Societies,"  p.  195,  says,  "Though  in  these  re- 
marks of  St.  Bernard  there  may  be  perceived  some  marks  of  rhetorical 
exaggeration,  they  prove  incontestably  the  high  character  and  sincera 
virtue  of  the  founders  of  the  society." 

"  Addison-Macoy,  op.  cit.,  p.  154. 

61 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

de  Lion  said,  ''I  leave  avarice  to  the  Cistercian  monks, 
luxuriousness  to  the  begging  friars,  pride  to  the  Tern- 
plars/'i7 

"When  wealth  was  heaped  upon  them  the  members 
of  this  order  actually  came  to  be  for  a  time  the  bankers 
of  Europe,  and  their  strongly-defended  temples  were 
depositories  of  treasure.  Their  riches,  power,  and  arro- 
gance made  powerful  enemies,  and  charges  in  part  foul 
and  false  were  made  against  them.  Philip  IV  of  France 
conspired  with  the  pope,  and  everywhere  they  were  sup- 
pressed.^^ The  Council  of  Vienna,  1311,  condemned  the 
order,  and  they  were  by  decree  incorporated  with  their 
rivals  the  Hospitalers,  Philip  and  the  more  fortunate 
order  dividing  their  vast  resources.  The  remains  and 
monuments  of  Knights  Templars  are  to  be  found  all 
over  Europe.  A  visit  to  the  Temple  Church,  London, 
consecrated  by  Heraclius,  seems  to  bring  the  visitor  into 
some  personal  relation  with  the  days  of  knightly  ambi- 
tions and  prowess. 

The  Hospitalers  are  known  also  under  the  terms 
Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  Knights  of  Rhodes, 
and  Knights  of  Malta.  The  origin  of  this  order^^  ante- 
dates that  of  the  Templars,  but  its  military  type  was 

"Heckethom,  op.  cit.,  p.  184. 

**  "The  Grandmaster  and  many  others  were  burned  alive  in  Paris,  re- 
fusing the  pardon  which  was  offered  if  they  would  confess  their  alleged 
crimes.  The  former  ascended  the  scaffold  and  said,  'The  decree  which 
condemns  us  is  an  unjust  one;  we  die  innocent;  but  there  is  in  heaven 
an  august  tribunal  where  the  oppressed  never  implore  in  vain;  to  that 
tribunal  I  cite  thee,  O  Roman  Pontiff;  within  forty  days  shalt  thou  be 
there.  And  thee,  O  Philip,  my  master  and  my  king,  in  vain  do  I  pardon 
thee;  thy  life  is  condemned  within  the  year;  I  await  thee  before  God's 
throne  1'  Such  a  citation  was  not  uncommon  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In 
this  case  the  pope  and  king  died  within  the  time  specified." — "Cham- 
bers's Journal,"  1869,  p.  263.  Of  this  matter  Fredet,  "Modern  His- 
tory," p.  303,  writing  from  a  Catholic  viewpoint,  says,  "This  story 
seems  to  be  devoid  of  proof,  being  omitted  by  all  the  historians  of  that 
time,  and  contradicted  by  the  best  critics  of  more  recent  date,  particu- 
larly by  Mariana,  F.  Brumoy,  Natalis  Alexander,   etc." 

"Famous  works  are:  P.  Antonio  Paoli,  "Dell'  Origine  dell'  Ordine  di 
S.  Gio.  Geros. ;"  John  Taaffe,  "The  History  of  the  Holy  Military  Sov- 
ereign Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,"  Ixmdon,  1852.  Later  writings 
are:  "Cartulaire  g6neral  de  I'ordre  des  hospitallers,"  Ed.  Delaville  le 
Roulx;  "Histoire  des  chevaliers  hospitaliers  de  Saint- Jean, "  etc.,  Vertot. 


MILITARY  ORDERS 

not  developed  until  after  the  tide  of  popularity  had  set 
towards  its  rivals  and  in  imitation  of  them.  References 
to  hospices  established  in  Palestine  in  the  sixth  century 
by  Gregory  the  Great  are  precarious.  Taaffe  sets  the 
date  of  the  foundation  at  1099,  but  in  1023,  over  seventy 
years  before  the  first  crusade,^*^  Christian  merchants  of 
Amalfi,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,^^  obtained  from  the 
Caliph  of  Egypt  permission  to  open  and  to  conduct  for 
pilgrims  a  hospital  in  Jerusalem.  They  were  given  a 
site  near  the  Holy  Sepulcher,  where  were  erected  two 
hospitals:  one  for  men,  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Al- 
moner, and  one  for  women,  named  for  St.  Mary  Mag- 
dalene. Subscriptions  from  all  parts  of  Christendom 
were  made  to  these  institutions,  the  merchants  acting 
as  stewards,  and  the  foundation  becoming  known  as  the 
Brotherhood  of  St.  John  at  Jerusalem.  Under  the  first 
head  of  the  brotherhood  whose  name  has  come  down, 
the  Rector  Gerard,  the  institution  flourished,  and  was 
imitated  in  branch  houses  in  maritime  towns  of  Europe. 
Gerard,  though  fanatical,  was  a  man  of  pity,  and  he 
secured  the  regard  of  the  Moslem  poor.^^ 

The  Crusaders,  in  1099,  captured  Jerusalem,  and 
their  wounded  were  cared  for  by  the  Brothers  of  St. 
John.  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  the  noble  knight  and  con- 
queror, who  refused  to  wear  a  crown  of  gold  in  the 
city  in  which  his  Savior  wore  a  crown  of  thorns,-^  was 
so  impressed  with  the  work  done  in  this  hospital  that 

20  Article,  "The  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  Past  and  Pres- 
ent," John  Wortabet,  M.  D.,  "Good  Words,"  July,  1893,  p.  378.  Maj. 
Lawrence-Archer,   op.  cit.  XX,  says  1048.     Porter  says  1050. 

21  Business  relations  had  been  established  between  Naples  and  the 
Saracens.  Review  "The  Monastic  Knights,"  "liittell's  Living  Age," 
1884,  p.  323,  from  London  "Quarterly  Review." 

22  Idem. 

»  "History  of  the  Crusades,"  Michaud,  Vol.  I,  p.  234.  Also  Mills, 
Vol.  I,  p.  264.  Godeffroy  of  Bologne,  "William  of  Tyre  Ca".,"  clxxxxix; 
"Whan  he  was  chosen  to  be  Kynge  in  Cristendora  doo  he  answerde  that 
in  this  holy  cyte,  where  our  Savyour  Ihesu  Criste  suffred  deth,  and  had 
born  a  crowne  of  thornes  vpon  his  heed  for  hym  and  for  the  synners 
he  wold  never  bere  yf  it  playsyde  god,  crowne  of  gold  ne  of  precious 
stones." 

63 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

he  endowed  it  with  his  manor  of  Montboise,  in  Bra- 
bant.^* His  example  was  followed  by  many  of  his  asso- 
ciates. 

In  the  beginning  the  Hospitalers  of  St.  John  obeyed 
the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  but  under  Gerard  they  fol- 
lowed the  Augustinian  rule.  They  were  very  charitable. 
Paoli  described  their  old  customs  of  the  care  of  cru- 
saders' children  and  of  abandoned  infants;  of  alms  to 
the  imprisoned,  and  clothing  when  they  were  liberated; 
of  marriage  portions  given  to  poor  girls;  of  food  and 
clothing  given  freely  thrice  a  week  to  all  who  asked; 
of  thirty-five  necessitous  persons  fed  daily  at  the 
Knights'  table;  of  a  tailor's  room  for  mending  the 
clothing  of  the  poor,  and  of  other  large-hearted  bene- 
factions.^^  It  is  said  that  Baldwin  II  constituted  the 
Hospitalers  Knights. 

In  1118  or  1120  Gerard,  dying,  was  succeeded  byj 
Raymond  du  Puy,^^  a  member  of  a  noble  family  in 
Dauphine.  The  mind  of  Raymond  was  charged  with 
the  notions  of  chivalry,  and  among  the  members  of  his 
convent  were  not  a  few  **  whose  hearts  were  not  so 
deadened  to  the  martial  enthusiasm  of  the  age  as  their 
profession  required.  "^^  Or  was  it  that  the  unsettled 
condition  of  the  times  as  well  as  the  positive  dangers 
of  the  newly-established  and  precarious  Kingdom  of 
Jerusalem  absolutely  required  their  aid  in  the  manly 
art  of  defense  ?^^  Certainly  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  a 
sense  of  duty  underlay  the  transformation  of  an  order 

**  The  act  of  donation  is  still  preserved  in  the  Vatican  library, 
"Malta  and  Its  Knights,"   Maj.  Gen.  Whitworth  Porter,  p.  5,  note. 

»P.  A.  Paoli,  202. 

=«  "History  of  the  Crusades,"  Mills,  Vol.  I,  p.  344,  note,  says  that 
the  term  of  his  office  as  grand  master  was  1121-1160. 

2^  "Malta  and  Its  Knights,"  Porter,  p.  6. 

'^  "In  the  very  first  year  after  their  constitution  as  a  military  order, 
the  Knights  took  a  leading  part  in  the  repulse  of  a  vast  army  of  Turko- 
mans that  had  besieged  Antioch;  and  in  all  the  subsequent  wars  between 
the  Crusaders  and  the  Saracens  they  were  in  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  "^ 
Wortabet,   "Good  Words,"  1893,  p.  379,  ut  supra. 


MILITARY  ORDERS 

of  pious  nurses  into  one  of  soldiers,  even  at  a  time  of 
great  dangers  and  excitement. 

From  this  point  the  peaceful  seclusion  of  the  hos- 
pital was  broken  upon  by  the  ardors  of  a  martial  age, 
and  before  many  years  elapsed  the  white-cross  banner 
of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  had  stricken  terror  to  the 
heart  of  many  a  foe.^^  At  this  time  the  order  forsook 
the  patronage  of  its  former  saintly  benefactor.  **They 
soon  deserted,"  says  William  of  Tyre,  ** their  humble 
patron,  St.  John  the  Eleemosynary,  for  the  more  august 
character,  St.  John  the  Baptist.""*  "With  the  transfor- 
mation into  a  military  order  came  a  division  into  three 
classes:  knights,  ecclesiastics,  and  serving  brothers. 
The  Knights  of  Justice  were  of  noble  birth.  The  eccle- 
siastics came  to  be  of  two  grades :  conventual  chaplains, 
who  were  in  charge  of  the  religious  exercises  of  the 
order  in  Jerusalem;  and  priests  of  obedience,  whose 
duties  were  in  European  institutions.  The  third  class, 
or  serving  brothers,  were  also  of  two  grades:  servants- 
at-arms,  or  esquires,  and  servants-at-office.  The  first  of 
these  grades  acted  as  attendants  and  helpers  to  the 
Knights,  and  in  some  cases  were  eligible  to  become  en- 
rolled among  them.  Servants-at-office^^  did  the  work  of 
menials  and  domestics,  but  also  fought,  and  had  such 
privileges  and  rewards  as  made  admission  to 'their  ranks 
desirable  to  many  common  people. 

While  the  Hospitalers  were  a  military  order  sworn 
to  the  destruction  of  the  Mussulmans,  if  one  of  them 
accepted  a  challenge  to  private  combat  he  was  deprived 
of  his  habit  and  cross.^^    The  two  orders.  Knights  Tem- 

29  These  caretakers  of  the  sick  astonished  the  world  by  their  courage 
and  daring  as  soldiers.  "Ecclesiastical  History,"  Mosheim-Coote,  Vol. 
I,  p.  302. 

80  Review:  "The  Monastic  Knights,"  op.  cit.,  Littell's  * 'Living  Age," 
1884,  p.  324;  "History  o£  the  Christian  Church,"  Robertson,  Vol.  V, 
p.  56. 

•^They  were  called  serjiens,  a  French  transmutation  of  the  Latia 
serviens,  and  applied  to  any  who  labored  in  an  inferior  position. 

»  "History  of  the  Crusades,"  Mills,  Vol.  I,  p.  347. 

5  65 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

plars  and  Knights  of  St.  John,  became  a  powerful  stand- 
ing army  for  the  defense  of  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 
They  also  soon  engaged  in  its  aggressive  adventures  and 
conquests,  and  when  in  1153  Baldwin  III  captured  As- 
calon,  largely,  it  was  believed,  because  of  the  skill  of 
the  grand  master  of  the  Hospitalers,  the  pope  gave  to 
this  order  and  to  the  Templars  such  independence  of 
the  clergy  as  probably  began  that  hostility  of  ecclesi- 
astics^^ which  did  not  cease  when  the  Templars,  in 
1312-14,  were  ruined  and  their  estates  as  well  as  many 
of  their  members  were  turned  over  to  their  more  for- 
tunate rivals. 

"When  Jerusalem  was  finally  lost  in  1187,^*  and  Acre 
in  1291,  the  grand  master  of  the  hospital  and  some  fol- 
lowers escaped  to  Cyprus,^^  and  in  1308  the  Knights 
went  to  Rhodes,  capturing  the  island  after  a  desperate 
struggle  lasting  two  years.^^  In  1530  they  removed  to 
Malta,  having  for  two  centuries  contributed  to  the 
safety  of  navigation  and  to  the  encouragement  of  com- 
merce. During  this  period  occurred  also  the  division 
into  seven  langues,  or  languages,  representing  the  prin- 
cipal states  of  Europe  in  which  the  order  was  repre- 
sented. Corruption  seized  upon  Hospitalers  when  they 
began  to  prosper,  and  in  Malta  they  engaged  in  the 
slave  traffic;  but  they  made  their  fortress  one  of  the 
most  powerful  in  the  world,  and  they  had  held  back 
from  Europe  the  ambitious  Turks,  deserving  thereby 
the  enduring  praise  of  Christendom.^^     The  scandal  of 

''Taaffe,  op.  cit.,  Bk.  I,  chap.  4. 

^Excellent  account  of  this,  "Age  of  Feudalism  and  Theocracy," 
Hans  Prutz,  Ph.  D.,   "Hist.  All  Nations,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  269. 

^  "The  Story  of  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem,"  Archer  and 
Kingsford,  p.  417,  in  reporting  the  above,  adds:  "But  there  remained 
sixty  thousand  Christians  whose  fate  was  slavery,  or  the  sword,  or  worse. 
The  Templars  and  those  who  had  taken  refuge  with  them  met  the  noblest 
end;  for,  resisting  to  the  last,  they  succumbed  only  when  their  fortress 
was  undermined,  and  together  with  numbers  of  their  assailants  perished 
in  its  ruins." 

'^  An  elaborate  and  finely  illustrated  work  is  '  'Rhodes  of  tho 
Knights,"   Baron  de  Belabre. 

8^  Vide  "Malta,  Past  and  Present,"  Seddall,  p.  98. 

66 


MILITARY  ORDERS 

the  degenerate  morals  and  works  of  the  Hospitalers 
was  made  more  public  by  John  Howard  ^^  who  visited 
the  island  in  1786.  Finally  the  French,  who  had  been 
mixing  in  its  affairs  for  some  time,  under  Napoleon  cap- 
tured Malta  in  1798.  From  that  time  the  Order  of 
St.  Jolin,  whose  headquarters  were  removed  to  Russia 
and  elsewhere,  has  had  a  relatively  humble  history.^** 
When  the  allies  captured  Malta  Lord  Nelson  secured 
from  the  emperor  the  cross  of  St.  John  for  the  notori- 
ous Lady  Hamilton.^**  The  English  Freemasons  claim 
a  revival  of  the  order  near  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  An  independent  revival  took  place  in  Eng- 
land in  1831,  brought  about  by  Rev.  Sir  Robert  Peat. 
The  German  langue,  or  Brandenburg  branch,  inactive 
after  the  Reformation,  was  reconstituted  in  1853  by 
Frederick  "William  IV,  whose  brother,  Prince  Charles, 
was  made  grand  master.*^  Many  hospitals  are  main- 
tained by  the  Knights  in  Germany,  and  after  the  mas- 
sacre of  Christians  in  Damascus  and  Lebanon  a  hospital 
was  established  in  Beyrout,  and  a  hospice  and  chapel 
in  Jerusalem.  Thus  does  the  good  day  of  the  past  re- 
turn again.  England  also  has  its  survivals,  including 
the  St.  John's  Ambulance  Association.  The  Roman 
order  was  re-established  in  1879  by  Pope  Leo  XIII. 
Business  offices  are  maintained,  and  the  ancient  archives, 
dating  from  the  twelfth  century,  are  to  be  found  at  La 
Valetta,  ]\Ialta. 

^Howard  describes  the  piratical  attacks  of  the  Knights  on  Moham- 
medan settlements,  and  their  evil  conduct  toward  the  sick.  "Do  not 
these  Knights,"  he  say 8,  "make  themselves  the  worst  enemies  of  the 
cross  of  Christ  under  the  pretense  of  friendship?"  "Howard  on  Laza- 
rettos," Warrington,  1789,  p.  58.  Vide  "Memoirs  of  John  Howard," 
James  Baldwin  Brown,  London,  1818,  pp.  .4G3-4.  Many  more  recent  lives 
of  Howard  reproduce  this  testimony. 

ssHardman's  "History  of  Malta"  during  the  French  and  British 
occupations  contains  profuse  accounts  of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  order, 
and  of  the  controversies  over  it  between  the  powers. 

*»  "Malta  and  Its  Knights,"   Porter,  p.  332. 

« An  account  of  the  origin  and  customs  of  this  order  of  Protestant 
Knights  is  found  in  "History  of  Malta,"  Louis  de  Boisgelin,  Vol.  I, 
chap.  iy. 

67 


CHEISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century  gave  rise 
in  Spain  to  the  military  orders  of  Calatrava,  of  St. 
James  of  Compostella,  of  St.  James  of  Alcantara,  and 
of  several  others.  The  Order  of  Evora  and  other  foun- 
dations of  Portugal*^  date  from  this  time.  The  Knights 
of  these  orders  swore  to  maintain  the  Christian  cause. 
Special  privileges  were  accorded  them  and  they  grew 
great  and  somewhat  dangerous,  but  it  is  attributed  to 
them  that  the  warfare  against  the  Moors  was  persist- 
ently waged  and  that  in  the  end  the  Christian  States 
of  Southern  Europe  were  preserved  intact.*^ 

An  order  whose  fame  was  to  be  gained  in  the  north 
was  originated  in  Palestine  in  1190.  A  hospital  for 
Germans  had  been  built  in  Jerusalem,  it  is  said,  through 
the  piety  of  a  German  and  his  wife  who  were  living 
there  during  the  time  of  the  holy  wars,  and  who  were 
distressed  by  the  condition  of  the  pilgrims  from  their 
own  land.**  In  the  year  named  a  brotherhood  was 
formed  by  German  Knights,  which  was  recognized  by 
Pope  Clement  III  in  1191,  became  a  knightly  order  in 
1198,  and  came  to  be  known  as  the  Teutonic  Knights 
of  St.  Mary's  Hospital  at  Jerusalem.  These  Knights 
wore  a  white  mantle  with  a  black  cross.  Their  rule  was 
St.  Augustine's,  and  they  had  knights,  priests,  and  serv- 
ants. Considerable  lands  were  soon  acquired  by  the 
order  at  Beyrout,  Toron,  and  Acre,  near  which  place 
was  erected  the  strongly-fortified  chief  seat,  Montfort, 
or  Starkenberg.  Herman  von  Salza,  third  grand  master, 
1211-1235,  came  to  see  that  there  was  no  future  for  his 
Knights  in  the  East.  Just  then  Conrad,  Duke  of  ]\Ia- 
sobia,  Poland,  needing  help  against  the  heathen  Prus- 

^  "The  CJhivalric  Orders  of  'Christ,'  'St.  James,'  and  'St.  Bento 
d' Avis'  were  originally  religious  orders  until  secularized  in  1789,  where- 
upon the  gradmastership  of  the  united  orders  was  vested  in  the  crown." 
"Orders  of  Chivalry,"   Maj.  Lawrence-Archer,  p.   206. 

*3  "Age  of  Feudalism  and  Theocracy,"  Prutz,  "Hist.  All  Nations," 
Vol.  IX,  p.  259. 

**  "History  of  Knighthood,"  H.  Clark,  Vol.  II,  p.  59. 

68 


MILITARY  ORDERS 

sians,  offered  to  the  Knights  the  territory  about  Kulm, 
to  be  theirs  as  rulers  if  they  could  conquer  it.  The 
Knights  secured  the  endorsement  of  the  emperor  and 
the  pope,  and  then  undertook  the  conquest,  fortifying 
their  way  as  they  proceeded,  so  that  when  repulsed 
they  could  retreat  by  a  succession  of  strong  defenses.*'* 
A  desperate  struggle  of  half  a  century  made  them  vic- 
tors, Christianity  thus  coming  into  Prussia  by  fire  and 
sword  in  1283,  and  the  grand  master  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights  becoming  sovereign  of  the  State  which  has 
grown  into  the  modern  Kingdom  of  Prussia.*® 

The  Brothers  of  the  Sword,*^  another  military  order 
of  Livonia,  called  also  Knights  of  Christ,  and  founded 
by  a  bishop  of  Livonia  for  the  conquest  of  the  heathen,** 
was  absorbed  by  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  1237,  and 
they  were  thus  able  to  acquire  Livonia  and  Kurland. 
They  extended  their  territories  and  established  a  strong 
State,  which  *' completed  the  benefits  conferred  on  the 
northeast  of  Europe  by  the  Hanseatic  League. ' '  *®  How- 
ever, the  aristocratic  Knights  were  hated  by  those  whom 
they  conquered.  In  1410  they  sustained  a  grievous  de- 
feat at  the  hands  of  the  Poles  and  Lithuanians.  Other 
reverses  came,  and  finally  the  Brothers  of  the  Sword 
cut  loose  from  their  alliance.  In  1525  the  grand  master, 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  became  a  Protestant,  laid  down 
his  office,  and  turned  his  State  into  the  Duchy  of  Prus- 
sia, under  fealty  to  the  King  of  Poland.  The  order  con- 
tinued to  exist  in  Germany  until  it  was  abolished  by 
Napoleon,  1809,  when  its  properties  were  seized.  A  re- 
vival as  an  Austrian  order  occurred  in  1834.^® 

*=  "History  of  Prussia,"  Herbert  Tuttle,  p.  115,  names  surviving 
castles,  built  by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  and  to  be  seen  by  the  tourist. 

«  "History  of  Mediaeval  Peoples,"  Robinson  Souttar,  p.  477.  Gtood 
brief  account  of  military  orders. 

*^The  two  orders  had  much  in  common.  Robertson,  "History  of  the 
Christian  Church,"  IV,  p.  369. 

«  "Middle  Ages,"  Duniy,  p.  291. 

*»Prutz,  op.  cit.,   "History  of  All  Nations,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  378. 

«**  Consult   "Geschichte  des  deutschen  Ritterordens,"   Voigt. 

69 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  spirit  of  Knighthood  fostered  throughout 
Europe  by  the  military  orders  was  reflected  in  Bohemia 
by  the  Knights  of  the  Cross.^^  Vladislav  II  and  his 
officers  during  their  experience  in  the  Crusades  doubt- 
less came  in  contact  with  the  ardent  Hospitalers  and 
Templars,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  a  Palestinian  origin 
for  this  fraternity.  The  earliest  definite  date  is  1233, 
when  the  Knights  are  found  attached  to  a  hospital  at 
Prague  under  the  Clarisses,  and  the  order  was  definitely 
instituted  under  the  rule  of  Augustine  by  Gregory  IX, 
1238.  The  Knights  were  designated  by  a  red  six-pointed 
star,  worn  in  addition  to  the  cross. 

By  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  Knights 
of  the  Cross  had  large  possessions  in  Bohemia,  and  they 
soon  spread  to  all  the  regions  now  kaown  as  Austria- 
Hungary,  During  the  Reformation,  although  the 
Knights  occupied  middle  ground  in  some  matters  of 
faith  and  practice,^^  they  were  a  bulwark  of  the  old 
Church.  The  followers  of  John  Huss  attacked  and  al- 
most destroyed  them,  but  the  order  survived  and  became 
stubborn  in  its  resistance  of  the  progressive  movement. 
At  the  siege  of  Eger,  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the 
Knights  were  conspicuous  for  zeal,  and  for  a  century 
or  more,  down  to  1694,  the  Archbishopric  of  Prague  was 
almost  wholly  dependent  on  them  for  support.  The 
present  order  is  not  large,  but  it  has  a  valuable  library 
and  has  been  active  in  the  work  of  the  University  of 
Prague. 

The  French  Order  of  Jesus  Christ,  ^^  attributed  to 
Dominic,  1206,  was  instituted  to  contend  against  the 
Albigenses,  and  was  partly  religious  and  partly  mili- 
tary.    Its  career  was  less  than  a  century  long.     The 

**!  "History  of  Bohemia,"  Vickers,  p.  154. 

"^Ibid,  p.  496,  Erasmus  says  that  most  of  the  Knights  celebrated  the 
Supper  under  both  kinds,  and  chanted  the  Epistle  and  Gospel  ia  the 
national   language. 

""Hist.  Knighthood,"   Clark,  Vol.  I,  p.  261. 

70 


MILITARY  ORDERS 

English  Order  of  St.  Thomas,"  called  also  Brotherhood 
of  St.  Thomas  a  Becket,  and  Knights  of  St.  Thomas  of 
Aeon,  or  Acre,  was  a  semi-religious  military  order,  re- 
puted to  have  been  founded  by  King  Richard  I  in  Pal- 
estine, 1191.  In  their  hospital  in  London  these  Knights 
survived  the  destruction  of  the  Knights  Templars,  with 
whom  they  were  closely  connected,  and  were  active  un- 
til the  Reformation.^^ 

Two  military  orders  called  Bethlehemites  are  rela- 
tively little  known.  One  of  these  is  mentioned  by  Mat- 
thew Paris,^®  who  records  that  Henry  III  authorized 
their  house  at  Cambridge,  1257.  They  wore  a  red  star 
of  five  rays  with  azure  center,  and  which  commemorated 
the  star  of  the  Magi.  The  Military  Order  of  Crusaders 
of  the  Red  Star,  also  called  Bethlehemites  from  their 
house  at  Bethlehem,  went  to  Bohemia  in  1217,  where 
they  still  exist  as  ecclesiastics  who  are  caretakers  of  the 
sick,  and  educators.  The  order  of  the  same  name,  es- 
tablished after  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  1453,  for  the 
protection  of  the  Island  of  Lemnos,  soon  coUapsed,  be- 
cause of  the  recapture  of  the  island  by  the  Turks. 

""The  Life  of  S.  Thomas  Becket,"  John  Morris,  p.  608.  "City 
Companies  of  London,"  Ditchfield,  p.  22. 

^For  a  catalogue  of  older  works  on  "Orders  of  Chivalry,"  see  Law- 
rence-Archer, op.  cit.,  349  ff. 

<>«  "Grande  Chronique,"  III,  300. 


71 


VI 

]MTSTICAL  BROTHERHOODS 

POOR  MEN  AND  FRIENDS  OF  GOD 

Christian  mystics  and  pietists  of  all  ages  may  be 
thought  in  their  better  types  to  represent  not  merely 
a  reaction  against  the  worldliness  and  wickedness  of 
their  times,  but  a  rekindling  of  that  spirit  in  man  which 
is  the  candle  of  the  Lord.  But  because  each  new  re- 
turn to  apostolic  simplicity  in  thought  and  conduct  has 
been  accompanied  by  some  related  or  merely  contempo- 
raneous fanaticism,  or  has  been  used  by  designing  and 
unworthy  persons  and  leaders  to  their  own  advantage, 
it  is  not  uncommon  in  modem  literature  to  find  un- 
critical and  even  total  condemnations  of  mysticism. 
** Mysticism  is  a  constant  joy  to  the  skeptic,"  a  great 
popular  journal  exclaims,  and  the  able  but  undiscrimi- 
nating  and  religiously  empty  author  of  an  iconoclastic 
book  declares  that  *' Mysticism  flourishes  only  among 
credulous  people.  It  is  plain  that  mysticism  is  a  mix- 
ture of  emotionalism  and  muddleheadedness.  Mystics 
are  mental  inebriates,"  and  much  more  to  the  same  ef- 
fect, all  of  which  may  have  its  meaning  and  force  as 
applied  to  certain  unredeemed  enthusiasts,  but  does  not 
go  far  towards  the  explanation  of  such  characters  as 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  Thomas 
a  Kempis. 

It  is  not  easy  to  define  so  recondite  and  indefinite 
a  term  and  tendency  as  is  mysticism.  It  represents 
widely-divergent  views  and  life,  but  perhaps  the  most 
representative    fundamental    principle    is    stated    by 

72 


MYSTICAL  BROTHERHOODS 

Preger.  **The  characteristic  of  mysticism  is  that  it 
strives  after  an  immediate  experience  and  vision  of  the 
Divine/*^  "In  religious  mysticism,"  says  Dargan, 
**the  essential  thing  is  the  avowed  consciousness  of  an 
immediate  dealing  of  the  soul  with  God;  a  complete 
union  with  God  or  fullness  of  God."^  j^  jg  apparent 
that  this  principle  gives  room  on  the  one  hand  for  the 
most  elevated  and  pious  devotion,  and  on  the  other  hand 
for  such  an  identification  of  self  with  God  as  deifies 
even  the  common  passions  of  humanity  and  leads  to 
all  possible  excesses. 

It  is  not  the  present  purpose,  however,  to  enter  upon- 
a  discussion  of  mysticism  in  general,  but  to  set  forth 
the  aims  and  deeds  of  the  brotherhoods  of  which  in 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  this  spirit  was 
the  source. 

The  Waldenses,  *'Poor  of  Christ"  or  *'Poor  Men  of 
Lyons,"  were  not  an  order,  but  a  sect,  including,  and 
permitting  even  to  preach,  women  as  well  as  men. 
These  humble  pure  followers  of  Peter  Waldo,  a  mer- 
chant of  Lyons,  who  about  1178  experienced  a  trans- 
forming religious  experience,  while  persecuted  and  cast 
omt  by  the  Mediaeval  Church,  have  left  upon  the  world 
an  influence  for  righteousness  and  in  behalf  of  Chris- 
tian earnestness  which  will  not  soon  pass  away.  The 
Waldenses  took  the  gospel  literally,  and  seriously  at- 
tempted to  make  it  their  daily  practice.  They  refused 
to  swear,  kill,  or  lie;  they  insisted  on  preaching  Christ 
without  ordination  or  ecclesiastical  sanction ;  they  would 
pray,  except  for  the  dead;  they  would  do  kindness  and 
live  poor,  with  as  little  distinction  as  possible  between 
clergy  and  laity  ;^  they  rejected  indulgences  and  purga- 
tory.    Waldo  and  his  associates  wished  to  remain  in 

1  "Geschichte  der  Mystik,"  Preger,  I,  8:  "Sie  unmittelbares  Er- 
leben  und   Schauen  des   Gottlichen  anstrebt." 

2  "History  of  Preaching,"   E.  0.  Dargan,  p.  2G7. 
•'•Studies  iu  Mystical  Religion,"   Jones,   especially  pp.   142-8. 

73 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

the  Catholic  Church,  but  there  was  no  place  in  the 
Church  of  that  day  for  their  system  of  lay  evangelism 
and  gospel  simplicity,  though  Harnack  thinks  that  if 
the  movement  had  come  a  century  later  it  might  have 
been  incorporated.*  The  Waldenses  have  persisted  in 
considerable  strength  up  to  the  present  time,  and  have 
been  brought  into  recent  notice  by  some  eminent  ac- 
cessions from  Rome,  including  the  learned  Jesuit,  Pro- 
fessor Giorgio  Bartoli.^  An  organization  of  **  Apostolic 
men,"  *'poor  men,"  called  Beghards,  came  into  exist- 
ence in  Louvain  about  1220.  This  society  represents 
a  reversal  of  the  usual  order  of  related  foundations  of 
men  and  women  in  that  a  sisterhood  with  similar  ideals 
preceded  it,  receiving  the  name  Beguines.  The  deriva- 
tions of  the  terms  *'Beghard"  and  *'Beguine"  has 
been  much  disputed.  Mosheim,*  and  others  following, 
traced  the  origin  to  a  Flemish  or  German  verb  heghen 
or  h  eg  gen,  to  beg.  In  this  view  the  reference  is  some- 
times to  literal  mendicancy,  sometimes  to  prayer,  **  beg- 
ging bard"  of  God.  The  modern  tendency  is,  how- 
ever, to  refer  the  word  to  a  nickname  given  to  the 
founder  Lambert,  **le  Begue,"  which  is  to  say  **the 
stammerer."^  Of  course  ^'Beguine"  was  coined  before 
Beghard,  and  many  think  it  much  more  likely  that  the 
verb  **to  beg"  come  from  ^^Beguine"  than  the  reverse. 
In  a  society  full  of  women  left  by  the  Crusades  with- 
out supporters  and  protectors,  unchastity  and  poverty 
were  rife.  Every  city  of  the  continent  was  thronged 
with  ragged  women  crying,  **Brod,  durch  Gott," 
''Bread,  for  God's  sake !"    The  wit  of  Lambert  of  Liege 

*  "History  of  Dogma,"  Harnack,  VI,  p.  92. 

»  For  account  of  the  strength  of  the  Waldenses  at  the  opening  of  the 
twentieth  century,  see  "Christendom  A.  D.  1901,"  W.  D.  Grant,  Ed., 
Vol.  I,  p.  284. 

'"Ecclesiastical  History,"  Mosheim,  III,  Part  II,  cap.  ii.  Jones 
says  Mosheim  derives  from  a  Flemish  verb,  and  that  no  such  word  ex- 
ists. 

'  "Studies  in  Mystical  Religion,"  Jones,  p.  198. 

74 


MYSTICAL  BROTHERHOODS 

discovered  the  first  remedial  plan.  This  pious  priest 
gathered  the  women  and  girls  who  proposed  to  live 
chastely,  first  into  an  ordinary  house,  then  into  a  Be- 
guinage  or  group  of  houses  surrounding  a  church  and 
hospital.  First  of  all  there  was  protection;  occupation 
and  support  being  also  provided.  There  was  no  abso- 
lute separation  from  the  world,  renunciation  of  prop- 
erty, or  vow  against  marriage.  It  was  a  community 
of  poor  virtuous  w^omen  associated  together  for  mutual 
tasks,  charitable  and  religious,  and  for  the  profit  of  all. 

The  Beghards^  sprang  into  existence  thirty  years 
later.  Bands  or  brotherhoods  of  pious  laymen,  with- 
out entering  monasteries,  performed  ofiices  of  religion 
and  charity  for  themselves  and  for  others.  They  cared 
for  the  sick,  the  insane,  the  dead,  often  without  pay. 
They  were  never  more  than  half  monks,  being  free  at 
any  time  to  take  up  ordinary  vocations  and  to  marry. 
They  lived  partly  by  toil  and  partly  by  begging.  They 
were  mainly,  though  not  altogether,  men  of  humble 
origin:  weavers,  dyers,  fullers,  and  of  various  other 
trades,  through  which  they  were  closely  allied  with  the 
craft-guilds  of  the  cities;  and  in  some  instances,  as  in 
Brussels,  no  one  was  admitted  to  the  Beghard  com- 
munity unless  he  belonged  to  the  Weavers'  or  to  some 
other  similar  company. 

The  Beghard  and  Beguine  groups  contained  many 
persons  of  intelligence  and  of  much  reading  and  thought, 
and  these  instructed  others;  while  all,  without  ordina- 
tion, preached  freely,  even  on  such  subjects  as  the 
Trinity  and  Divine  Guidance.  Their  poverty,  unsel- 
fishness, and  zeal  won  for  them,  even  when  opposed, 
wide  popularity,  but  they  were  soon  subject  to  the  dis- 
approbation of  the  regular  clergy,  even  before  gross 
abuses  crept  into  the  bodies. 

«The  principal  source  for  facts  concerning  this  widely  related  and 
much  misimderstood  order  is  Mosheim,   "De  Beghardis  et  Beguinabus." 

75     • 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Doubtless  many  of  the  accusations  made  against  them 
were  false.®  In  course  of  time  there  came  to  be,  how- 
ever, enough  evil  for  which  to  justly  bring  charges.  In 
an  age  of  loose  morals  it  was  difficult  to  guard  the  purity 
of  societies  which  were  unbound  to  obedience  and  dis- 
cipline. ]\Ioreover,  the  mystical  tendencies  of  the  mem- 
bers soon  brought  them  into  fellowship  with  the  Breth- 
ren of  the  Free  Spirit,  and  at  length,  to  their  infinite 
injury,  under  their  domination.  By  the  opening  of  the 
fourteenth  century  the  terms  *'pest''  and  *' heretic" 
came  to  be  applied  to  them  with  force,  and  the  name 
**Beghard"  became  an  appellation  with  which  to  blacken 
reputation.^°  But  many  members  of  the  brotherhoods 
remained  pure  of  heart  and  bravely  suffered  persecu- 
tion and  death  for  their  faith,  the  most  famous  member 
and  martyr  being  Nicholas  of  Basel,  at  one  time  generally 
identified  with  the  mysterious  laymen  from  the  Ober- 
land,  through  whose  saintly  influence  John  Tauler  was 
converted.^^  Nicholas  was  a  famous  missionary  who 
traveled  widely,  expending,  it  is  said,  his  own  wealth, 
and  aiding  the  cause  of  piety  by  self-denying  labors. 
History  has  preserved  little  that  is  certain  with  refer- 
ence to  the  details  of  his  life,  but  it  is  known  that  he 
was  seized  by  the  Inquisition  and  put  to  death  in' Vienna 
about  1397  in  company  with  two  of  his  disciples.  The 
whole  Beghard  movement  was  rudely  shaken  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  from  that  time  deteriorated. 

It  is  almost  impossible  at  times  to  clearly  distinguish 
between   bodies   of    Beghards,    Brethren    of    the    Free 

»Vaughan,  "Hours  With  the  Mystics,"  I,  p.  185.  The  quaintly 
prejudiced  "Short  History  of  Monastic  Orders,"  by  Gabriel  d'Emilli- 
anne,  says,  "The  Papists  charged  them  immediately  (as  they  are  wont 
to  do  those  who  do  not  side  with  them)  with  thousand  abominable 
crimes."      p.   219. 

"  So  used,  for  example,  in  case  of  FlorentiuS.  J.  P.  Arthur's  Intro. 
"Founders  of  the  New  Devotion,"  Thomas  h  Kempis,  XXV. 

""Christian  Mysticism,"  Inge,  p.  180.  Vaughan,  I,  239-240,  holds 
to  this  identification,  which  Jones,  p.  210,  however  declares  to  be  with- 
out historical  foundation.     But  see  under   "Friends  of  God." 

76 


MYSTICAL  BROTHERHOODS 

Spirit,  and  Lollards.  These  societies  in  many  places 
merged  into  each  other  or  combined,  and  their  names, 
together  with  that  of  the  "Waldenses,  are  loosely  and 
often  erroneously  used  by  authorities.  There  can  be 
no  doubt,  however,  that  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit 
represent  a  radical  and  often  a  revolutionary  type  of 
mysticism.  It  is  unfortunate  that  our  knowledge  of 
them  comes  mainly  through  the  writings  of  their  ene- 
mies whose  accusations  are  supported  by  the  strong  cen- 
sures of  Tauler.  On  its  better  side  the  movement  was 
a  popular  uprising  in  behalf  of  liberty  and  a  powerful 
representation  of  the  religion  of  laymen.  It  was  indeed 
strongly  anti-ecclesiastic,  but  it  was  based  on  panthe- 
istic and  acosmistic  ideas,  and  easily  ran  into  libertin- 
ism. *'They  combined  with  their  pantheism  a  deter- 
minism which  destroyed  all  sense  of  responsibility."^^ 
The  Bishop  of  Strasburg  in  1317  accuses  the  Brethren 
of  the  Free  Spirit  of  many  things  purely  anti-clerical, 
such  as  teaching  that  it  is  not  necessary  in  order  to 
salvation  to  confess  to  priests,  and  that  the  consecrated 
wafer  in  the  hands  of  a  layman  is  as  efficacious  as  a 
priestly  mass ;  but  he  also  charges  that  these  enthusiasts 
taught  that  no  obedience  is  necessary,  not  even  to  par- 
ents ;  that  there  is  neither  purgatory,  hell,  nor  judgment ; 
that  the  soul's  inner  voice  is  superior  to  Church  teach- 
ing, and  that  many  of  themselves  had  attained  such  per- 
fection that  they  could  not  sin,  Tauler  opposes  sound 
spiritual  freedom  to  what  he  calls  spurious  spiritual 
freedom.^'"^  Of  the  objectionable  types  of  the  ''Free 
Spirit*'  he  says  that  they  hold  themselves  free  from  all 
subjection  as  a  tool  is  passive  until  its  Master  desires 
to  use  it;  therefore  they  account  themselves  to  be  su- 
perior to   all  virtues.     Whatever  nature   desires  they 

^Inge,  op.  cit.,  p.  140. 

"Preger,  "Geschichte  der  deutschen  Mystik  im  Mittelalter,"  Vol. 
III.  This  work  contains  a  rich  store  of  materials  for  an  adequate  con- 
ception of  Mysticism. 

77 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

can  do  freely  without  sin,  because  they  have  reached 
the  highest  innocence.^*  The  problem  of  Christianity 
in  the  period  when  these  people  flourished  was  how  to 
keep  the  warm  love  and  faith  which  mysticism  cer- 
tainly furnished  without  running  into  antinomian  ex- 
cesses and  hypocrisies.  It  must  be  confessed  that  the 
Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit  were  little  helpful  to  this 
end.^^  The  Men  of  Understanding,  Homines  Intelli- 
genticB,  an  organization  found  at  Brussels  in  1411, 
seems  to  represent  a  derived  society  of  Brethren  of  the 
Free  Spirit.  They  professed  celestial  visions,  denied  the 
possibility  of  Scriptural  knowledge  without  illumina- 
tion, expected  a  new  revelation,  affirmed  that  outward 
actions  of  any  kind  are  unable  to  defile  the  inward  man, 
professed  that  the  resurrection  had  come,  and  taught 
the  final  salvation  of  all  men  and  devils.^^  Before, 
and  after  this  time  the  Flagellantes  or  Whippers  ran 
throughout  many  parts  of  Europe,  stirring  up  false  doc- 
trines and  practices,  and  causing  much  confusion.  The 
German  inquisitors  devoted  many  of  them  to  the  flames, 
including  the  Thuringian  leader,  Conrad  Schmidt,  whom 
Shonefeld  put  to  death  with  many  of  his  foUowers.^^ 
It  is  refreshing  to  turn  to  a  brotherhood  more  closely 
allied  with  the  Beghards,  and  indeed  often  almost  inex- 
tricably mixed  with  them,  known  as  '^ Friends  of  God.*' 
The  leaders  of  this  laymen's  movement  were  much  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  great  teacher  of  German  mys- 
ticism, Meister  Eckhart,^^  and  to  some  extent  they  were 
also  impressed  by  the  views  of  the  German  prophetesses, 

"  "Tauler  speaks  of  Free  Spirits  to  show  the  error  of  their  doctrines, 
not  to  demand  their  extirpation."  "Life  and  Times,"  Winkworth, 
p.  151. 

"But  Oarrick,  "Wycliffe  and  the  Lollards,"  p.  15,  says  that  they 
together  with  Beghards,  Beguines,  and  many  other  kindred  communities, 
"handed  on  the  torch  of  apostolic  faith." 

""Ecclesiastical  History,"  Mosheim,  Part  II,  chap,  v,  section  4. 

"Kappius,    "Rel.   Theol.   Antiq.,"   p.   475. 

^  Back  of  Eckhart,  Erigena  and  Aquinas,  Dionysius  and  Augustine. 
"Aspects   of   Christian   Mysticism,"    Scott,   p.    54. 

78 


MYSTICAL  BROTHERHOODS 

Saints  Hildegarde,  Elizabeth,  and  Matilda.  The  Friends 
of  God  formed  small  groups,  both  of  men  and  women, 
scattered  over  all  Northern  Europe  from  Bohemia  to 
the  Netherlands,  but  the  leading  centers  were  Basel,  Co- 
logne, and  Strasburg.  Little  organization  character- 
ized these  societies,  which  gathered  around  the  nuclei 
of  spiritual  leaders  who  w^ere  believed  to  be  subjects 
of  direct  divine  revelations.  There  were  brotherhood 
houses,  called  by  Tauler  ** quiet  nests,"  where  members 
lived  together.  The  ** Friends''  were  thoroughly  op- 
posed to  the  moral  laxity  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit  and  were  liable  to  go  to  the  opposite  extreme 
of  ascetic  rigors  and  self-denials.  They  were  deep  and 
intense  in  piety  of  the  mediaeval  type,  and  they  were 
obedient  to  the  rules  of  the  Church,  being  generally 
without  Protestant  temper,  even  when  rebuking  eccle- 
siastical abuses.  **They  were  not  a  sect,"  says  a  care- 
ful writer,^^  *  *  but  a  company  who  devoted  themselves  to 
the  love  of  God  and  of  men,  and  were  active  in  all  be- 
nevolent works."  It  was  their  care  to  minister  to  the 
inward  life,  sadly  disturbed  by  the  evil  influence  of 
troubled  times,  and  by  preaching,  counsel,  and  sacra- 
ment to  succor  the  poor  people  *Hhat  are  now  as  sheep 
without  a  shepherd  and  perishing  for  lack  of  spiritual 
bread.  "2«  This  work  was  prosecuted  both  personally 
and  by  literature,  of  which  the  volumes  that  have  come 
down  form  a  large  coUection,^^  including  among  others 
the  treatises  ascribed  to  the  enigmatical  ''Friend  of  God 
from  the  Oberland,"  Merswin's  ''New  Life,"  "The 
Book  of  the  Five  Men,"  "Book  of  the  Master  of  Holy 
Scripture,"  "Book  of  the  Nine  Rocks,"  and  many  let- 
ters. 

The  Friends  of  God  number  some  notable  and  con- 
secrated names,  of  which  those  best  known  are  Rulman 


""History  of  the  Christian  Church,"  Blackburn,  p.  357.  ^^ 

'"Vaughan,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  p.  224,  quoting  Schmidt's   "Tauler. 
^  For  a  considerable  list  see  B.  M.  Jones,  op.  cit.,  246,  note  1, 

79 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Merswin,  John  Tauler,  Henry  Suso,  Jan  Ruysbroek, 
and  the  unknown  author  of  *'Theologia  Germanica/' 
the  literary  gem  of  the  movement,  of  which  Luther  said, 
**Next  to  the  Bible  and  St.  Augustine  no  book  hath 
ever  come  into  my  hands  from  which  I  have  learned 
more  of  what  God  and  Christ  and  man  and  all  things 
are.'*^^  Merswin  of  Strasburg  was  born  in  1307.  In 
his  youth  he  became  a  banker,  and  attained  wealth. 
When  about  forty  years  of  age  he  withdrew  from  the 
world  and  devoted  his  life  to  religion,  not  giving  away 
his  property,  but  keeping  it  to  use  as  God  might  direct. 
Some  time  later  he  purchased  Griinenworth  and  estab- 
lished the  *' Convent  of  the  Green  Isle,'*  as  a  mystic 
home  and  school  of  prophets.  The  history  of  this  de- 
vout man  is  so  mingled  with  that  of  his  strange  and 
unrevealed  **  Friend  from  the  Oberland''  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  state  with  assurance  the  details  of  his  life  and 
activities.  Jan  Ruysbroek,  1293-1381,  the  '^ecstatic 
doctor, *'  taught  three  stages  of  Christian  living:  the 
active,  the  internal,  the  contemplative.^^  The  distin- 
guishing marks  of  the  first  stage  are  humility,  justice, 
and  love.  The  second  stage  is  that  of  illumination,  de- 
noting the  rise  of  the  soul  from  the  exterior  to  the 
inner  life.  For  spiritual  illumination  and  vision  three 
things  are  necessary:  the  light  of  divine  grace,  the  free 
conversion  of  the  will  towards  God,  and  a  conscience 
pure  from  all  mortal  sin.  Few  attain  the  third  stage, 
when  by  a  process  of  '* deification"  the  soul  makes  its 
ascent  to  God.  At  this  stage  one  dies  to  himself  in  God, 
and  God  unites  him  to  Himself  in  eternal  recompense 
of  all  the  virtues.  Ruysbroek  was  not  a  scholar,  yet 
knew  enough  Latin  to  become  a  priest  at  twenty-four 
years  of  age,  performing  his  duties  with  zealousness 

22  In  the  preface  of  an  edition  of  "Theologia  Germanica'*  which  he 
edited,  Luther  states  that  it  was  written  by  a  German  gentleman,  a 
priest  and  warden  in  the  house  of  the  Teutonic  Order  »t  Frankfort. 

23  Scott,  op.  cit.,  pp.  70-72. 

80 


MYSTICAL  BROTHERHOODS 

till  his  sixtieth  year,  when  with  comrades  he  retired 
to  the  monastery  of  Gronendal,  where  he  also  performed 
the  lowliest  tasks,  treating  as  friends  the  humblest  as- 
sociates, and  by  personal  contact  as  well  as  by  his  pen 
bringing  many  souls  into  the  Invisible  Church  of  God 
to  which  he  belonged  and  of  which  he  was  a  pillar. 

Henry  Suso  was  born  near  Constance  about  1295 
and  was  the  child  of  a  worldly  knight  and  a  sentimen- 
tally religious  mother,^*  whose  union  was  as  unhappy 
as  it  was  incongruous.  Each  of  his  parents  sought  to 
mold  the  life  of  the  susceptible  child,  but  the  mother 
with  most  success;  and  after  his  father  gave  up  hope 
of  making  him  like  himself,  the  lad  was  placed  in  the 
Dominican  cloister  at  Constance.  He  was  troubled  in 
spirit,  and  in  seeking  peace  he  passed  through  severe 
and  prolonged  tortures,  both  of  mind  and  body.  Finally 
he  came  upon  the  writings  of  Eckhart,  and  later,  at 
Cologne,  he  was  under  the  master's  personal  instruction. 
From  early  life  until  his  fortieth  year  he  practiced  ex- 
treme asceticism.  He  passed  through  many  persecu- 
tions by  reason  of  slander  against  both  his  views  and 
his  personal  life.  His  teachings  were  those  of  Eckhart : 
the  mystical  union  with  God,  amounting  to  an  identifi- 
cation of  the  human  and  divine  spirits,  the  humanizing 
of  God,  and  the  deification  of  the  mystic,  with  the  at- 
tainment of  divine  knowledge,  love,  and  holiness  through 
this  intimate  divine  relationship.  There  was  little  place 
for  sin,  repentance,  or  faith  unto  salvation  in  this  sys- 
tem, which  by  Eckhart  was  proclaimed  largely  to  the 
already  religious,  who  were  urged  to  attain  to  fullness 
of  union  with  God.  As  a  speaker  Suso  was  more  ready 
and  attractive  than  his  master,  and  he  did  much  to 
popularize  the  mystic  doctrine  and  to  increase  its  ad- 
herents. 

2*  According  to  Oudinus,  Suso  declares  that  his  mother  was  "full  of 
the  mighty  God."  Ullman,  "Reformers  Before  the  Reformation,"  Bk. 
Ill,  Part  5,  p.  189. 

6  81 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  most  famous  of  all  Friends  of  God  was  John 
Tauler,  another  of  Eckhart's  pupils  and  a  learned,  elo- 
quent, and  spiritual  leader,  of  whom  it  has  been  said 
that  **of  aU  the  mystics,  Tauler  was  the  nearest  ap- 
proach to  a  universal  character/ '  ^^  He  was  probably 
born  at  Strasburg,  1290,-®  and  he  died  there  June  16, 
1361.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  renounced  a  fortune 
to  enter  a  Dominican  cloister.  He  studied  in  Paris  and 
spent  most  of  his  energies  in  Cologne  and  Strasburg, 
coming  into  close  relations  in  thought  and  in  labor  with 
Ruysbroek  and  Nicholas  of  Basel.  He  published  in 
German  a  work  with  the  title  '^Nachfolge  des  armen 
Lebens  Christi/'  and  other  devotional  writings  and  ser- 
mons served  to  emphasize  the  teachings  of  his  devout 
life. 

Tauler  was  independent  in  thought  and  in  deeds. 
When  Strasburg  was  in  the  double  woes  of  the  Black 
Death  and  of  papal  interdict,  he  and  his  Friends  of 
God  went  to  and  fro  with  comfort  for  the  people. 
*'God,"  said  he,  **is  not  in  the  churches  alone;  He  does 
not  come  only  with  the  priest ;  seek  Him  in  your  homes 
and  hearts.''  The  plague  became  so  great  that  per- 
haps a  fourth  of  the  population  of  Western  Europe 
suffered,  while  in  Strasburg  sixteen  thousand  persons 
fell  victims,  and  there  were  not  priests  enough  to  bury 
the  dead.  Ghastly  processions  of  Flagellants  appeared, 
clad  in  white  shirts,  often  covered  with  blood,  and  chant- 
ing wildly  as  they  scourged  each  other  to  exhaustion: 

"Nun  hebet  auf  eure  Haende, 
Dass  Gott  dies  grosse  Sterben  wende; 
Nun  hebet  auf  eure  Anne, 
Dass  sich  Gott  ueber  uns  erbarme:" 

The  Jews  were  accused,  by  some  fanatics,  of  causing 
the  evil  by  poisoning  the  wells,  and  many  of  them  were 

=»  "Hist.   Christian  Church,"   Hurst,  p.  203. 

2«  Some  authorities  date  his  birth  ten  years  later. 

82 


MYSTICAL  BROTHERHOODS 

burned  to  death.  Prophets  arose,  predicting  the  world's 
end.  In  the  midst  of  all  Tauler  preserved  judgment. 
He  inspired  the  good  with  new  courage,  even  while  he 
declared  that  the  city  was  being  scourged  for  its  sins.^^ 
The  Roman  authorities  troubled  him  for  a  time,  but 
he  won  hosts  of  followers,  and  the  mystic  groups,  both 
those  of  men  and  the  women's  associations,  were 
strengthened  by  the  gifts  of  the  rich  and  by  large  ac- 
cessions of  members.  That  Tauler 's  doctrines  were 
sometimes  subversive  of  good  judgment  and  of  the 
Scriptures,  Luther  did  not  always  clearly  perceive. 
John  Wesley  more  fully  realized  the  objectionable  fea- 
tures of  mysticism,  and  he  accuses  one  of  the  commen- 
taries of  the  celebrated  German  with  being  * 'tinctured*' 
with  these,  **and  hence  often  dangerously  wrong.  How 
does  he,  almost  in  the  words  of  Tauler,  decry  reason, 
right  or  wrong,  as  an  irreconcilable  enemy  to  the  gos- 
pel of  Christ.  "28  In  a  letter  to  Mr.  Law,^^  Wesley 
also  says,  *' Tauler,  Behmen,  and  a  whole  army  of  mys- 
tic authors  are,  with  me,  nothing  to  St.  Paul."  On 
apostolic  authority  Wesley  refuted,  against  mystical 
teachers,  those  antinomian  extravagances  which  have 
often  proven  the  curse  of  piety.  However,  the  great 
profitableness  of  the  preaching,  charity,  and  nobility  of 
many  individual  Friends  of  God  has  never  been  denied 
by  good  authorities,  nor  has  the  relation  of  their  history 
and  writings  to  that  movement  been  unrecognized  by 
the  Churches  which  have  resulted  from  the  Reforma- 
tion.3o 

"  "The  History  and  Life  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Tauler,"  Winkworth, 
p.  136. 

2«John  Wesley's   "Journal,"   June,   1741,  p.  213. 

^"Wesley's  Works,"  Vol.  V,  p.  669.  Wesley  seems  to  have  been 
critical  of  Behmen  to  the  point  of  injustice. 

»«  "Reformers  Before  the  Reformation,"  Ullman,  Bk.  Ill,  Part  5, 
p.  258. 


83 


YII 

LOLLARDS  AND  BROTHERS  OF  THE  COMMON 

LIFE 

MYSTICAL  BROTHERHOODS— Continued 

Before  considering  that  brotherhood  which  has  pro- 
duced the  best  known  of  all  mystical  names,  some 
thought  should  be  taken  of  the  Lollards,  who  were 
rather  an  unorganized  company  of  lay  preachers  than 
a  society,  having,  however,  a  strong  group  feeling.^  The 
name  is  most  commonly  associated  with  the  followers 
of  John  "Wycliffe,  but  it  was  given  to  them  as  a  nick- 
name, and  its  origin  must  be  sought  much  earlier.^  Its 
first  known  appearance  in  literature  is  in  the  *' Chron- 
icles of  Joames  Hocsemius,"  1309.  Lea  says^  that  as- 
sociations of  Lollards  were  founded  during  a  pestilence 
at  Antwerp  about  the  year  just  mentioned.  They  were 
laymen  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick 
and  insane,  and  especially  to  the  burial  of  the  dead, 
supplying  the  funds  partly  by  labor  and  partly  by 
begging."  It  is  said  that  the  name  Lollard  comes  from 
the  Low  German  lullen  or  lollen,  which  means  to  sing 
or  chant  in  a  low  tone,  preserving  memory  of  the  dirges 
which  were  plaintively  sung  as  dead  bodies  were  borne 
to  the  grave.  Another  derivation  is  from  "Walter  Lol- 
lard, regarded  by  Professor  Lindsay  as  a  mythical  per- 
sonage, but  probably  a  native  of  Mentz,  who  preached 

iR.  M.  Jones,  op.  cit.,  p.  360. 

2 A  valuable  work  is  "Lollardy  and  the  Reformation  in  England,'* 
James  Gairdner. 

=  "History  of  the  Inquisition  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  Henry  Chas. 
Lea,  Vol.  II,  p.  350,  note. 

84 


LOLLARDS 

on  the  continent  and  in  England  in  the  early  fourteenth 
century,  and  who  was  burned  as  a  heretic  in  1322  at 
Cologne.  The  Monk  of  Canterbury  refers  the  origin 
of  the  term  to  lolium,  *'a  tare/'  regarding  the  Lollards 
as  tares  sown  in  Christ's  vineyard. 

Without  doubt  the  Lollards  were  in  strong  opposi- 
tion to  Rome  with  reference  to  the  necessity  of  infant 
baptism  in  order  to  salvation,  the  divine  origin  of  the 
mass,  transubstantiation,  ordination,  and  other  matters. 
This  led  to  severe  persecution  of  Lollards  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Reformation.  At  first  they  were  bad  mar- 
tyrs, but  as  time  went  on  they  became  of  sterner  stuff. 
Fox  records  their  well-borne  sufferings.  More  than  a 
hundred  names  are  preserved  of  those  who  were  burned 
to  death.  The  Lollards'  tower  fitted  up  for  their  im- 
prisonment and  torture  by  Chicheby,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  in  1414,  is  a  monument  to  their  miseries. 
The  first  Lollards  in  England,  the  place  of  their  greatest 
fame,  came  from  Germany.  "Wycliffe's  Lollards*  were 
at  first  chiefly  Oxford  men,^  trained  by  their  leader 
himself,  and  sent  out  as  **poor  priests"®  to  teach  a 
plain  and  simple  gospel  of  faith.  Later  no  distinction 
was  made  between  priests  and  laymen,  it  being  taught 
by  Wycliffe  that  the  divine  call  and  commandment  are 
entirely  sufficient  for  ministering.  From  the  first  these 
** evangelical  men,"  as  they  were  also  named,  had  the 
common   people   with   them,'^   and   later  many   of   the 

*  "Life  of  Wiclif,"  LeBas,  in  cap.  x  names  and  describes  the  labors 
and  views  of  several  of  the  more  noted  of  these  men. 

«"Wyckliffe  and  the  Lollards,"  Carrick,  p.  132.  Wilson,  infra, 
p.  158. 

8  John  Laird  Wilson,  "John  Wyckliffe,  Patriot  and  Reformer,"  says 
"Wycliffe  anticipated  Wesley.  His  itinerants,  or  'poor  priests,'  as  they 
were  popularly  named,  were  the  Methodists  of  the  fourteenth  century." 
P.  160. 

'That  the  influence  of  Wycliflee  and  of  Lollardism  tended  also  to 
democracy  in  civil  government  is  shown  by  Lewis  Sergeant,  "John 
Wyclif,"  p.  260-267.  He  declares,  p.  347,  "Lollardy  was  in  fact  the 
keystone  of  the  arch  whereon  the  newer  liberties  of  Englishmen  are  sup- 
ported." 

85 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

gentry  and  nobles  as  well.®  They  wore  long  russet 
gowns  with  deep  pockets,  used  simple  direct  language, 
abhorred  oaths,  avoided  dogma,  and  dealt  unsparingly 
with  vices,  including  those  of  the  *' official"  Christians. 
"With  the  greatest  earnestness  and  persistency  they  ap- 
pealed to  **Goddis  Worde''  and  besought  men  to  join 
''Christ's  sect."  In  1395  the  Lollards  presented  a  pe- 
tition to  Parliament  urging  drastic  Church  reform,  the 
very  fact  of  its  reception  indicating  the  strength  of  the 
movement,*  even  after  the  death  of  its  leader.  But 
enemies  proved  too  strong  for  their  safety,  many  being 
put  to  death  after  the  act  of  Parliament  of  1401  mak- 
ing death  the  penalty  of  heresy.  Among  these  in  1417 
was  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  Baron  Cobham.  More  than 
half  a  century  later,  in  the  first  year  of  the  Tudors, 
1485,  burnings  again  occurred.  These  deplorable  events 
became  so  frequent  in  1511  as  to  call  forth  the  heartless 
jest  of  Erasmus  that  he  could  now,  less  than  ever,  for- 
give those  who  with  winter  at  hand  were  thus  raising 
the  price  of  faggots.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  activity; 
of  the  Lollards  persisted  throughout  the  entire  two  cen- 
turies from  their  origin  to  the  Reformation.  "With  ref- 
erence to  their  position  as  pre-Reformation  Protestants, 
little  difference  of  view  exists.  '*It  is  no  pernicious 
novelty, ' '  said  the  Bishop  of  London  when  the  Lutheran 
doctrine  began  to  be  preached,  *'it  is  only  new  arms 
being  added  to  the  band  of  Wycliffite  heretics."  But 
Fuller  declares,  **  These  men  were  sentinels  against  an 
army  of  enemies  till  God  sent  Luther  to  relieve  them." 
After  their  persecutions  ended,  the  Lollards  gradu- 
ally decreased  in  numbers.  During  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury they  were  absorbed  into  the  reformed  Churches. 
About  1530  a  mass  of  literature  was  collected  which 
contained  the  message  of  the  Lollards  and  which  in  its 

•♦*Life  of  John  Wicliflf,"  Gilpin,  p.  52. 
•  "Wycliffe  Anecdotes,"  Green,  p.  131. 

86 


LOLLARDS 

"Sum  of  the  Scriptures"  contained  a  strong  social  note. 
In  its  later  years  the  movement  was  marked  by  Ana- 
baptist influences. 

A  time  of  widespread  misery  is  almost  certain  to 
witness  a  **New  Devotion,  "^^  called  forth  by  the  spirit 
of  Christ  in  response  to  the  common  need.  As  the  four- 
teenth century  drew  to  its  close  the  world  and  the 
Church  were  alike  sick  in  extremis.  It  is  a  dismal  pic- 
ture of  strife,  uncertainty,  and  distress  which  the  his- 
torian presents.  Turmoil  had  characterized  the  whole 
century,^  ^  and  its  evils  were  not  lessened,  but  were  ac- 
centuated toward  the  close.  Factional  conflicts,  rebel- 
lions, and  wars  ate  out  the  life  of  Europe;  commerce 
was  reduced;  finances  were  in  a  sad  plight;  the  di- 
vided papacy  was  destroying  piety  and  increasing  moral 
laxity;  **with  the  year  1378,"  says  Professor  Lodge,^^ 
begins  a  period  of  anarchy  and  confusion."  It  is  true 
that  underneath  all  of  these  evils  the  Renaissance  was 
beginning  silently  to  work  its  leaven  of  new  culture, 
but  the  dawn  of  a  better  age  of  faith  and  conduct  was 
as  yet  far  off.  **The  body  of  Christianity,"  wrote 
Gerson  at  the  time,  *4s  covered  with  sores  from  head 
to  foot.''  Nothing  was  left  to  those  who  were  heart- 
hungry  save  to  become  examples  and  prophets  of  the 
Church  Invisible  and  to  sow  the  seeds  of  a  religion  of 
experience  and  of  simplicity. 

Mysticism  had  previously  been  permeated  with  scho- 
lasticism. Dionysius  and  Erigena  were  too  powerful, 
and  the  social  aspects  of  Christianity  were  not  suffi- 
ciently emphasized  or  practiced.  Hence  arose  in  nearly 
all   Christendom,  produced  by  a  mingled  craving  for 

I'The  name  was  applied  to  themselves  by  the  disciples  of  the  new 
Mysticism.  For  the  condition  which  produced  them,  see  Ullman,  op.  cit., 
Bk.  in,  Part  2,  p.  58. 

""Ten  Centuries  of  European  Progress,"  Lewis  Jackson,  "Chap- 
ters on  General  Development,  Political  Condition,  and  Record  of  Prog- 
ress,"  p.   105.  seq. 

»**The  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  R.  Lodge,  p.  182. 

87 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

God  and  compassion  for  a  suffering  humanity,  expo- 
nents and  leaders  of  a  life  both  inwardly  devout  and 
serviceable.  In  Italy,  Catherine  of  Siena,  Chancellor 
Gerson  in  France,  Bridget  in  Sweden,  Hilton  in  Eng- 
land, and  in  Holland  Groote,  represent  this  new  con- 
secration to  a  combined  spirituality  and  love,  whose 
richest  development  is  in  the  land  and  society  which 
gave  to  the  world  the  most  celebrated  book  classed 
among  mystical  writings,  the  ** Imitation  of  Christ." 

The  institution  of  the  clerks  or  Brothers  of  the  Com- 
mon Life  or  Lot^*  is  attributed  to  the  influence  of  Ger- 
hard Groote,  called  the  Great,  born  in  Deventer  1340, 
educated  at  Paris,  and  who  died  greatly  mourned  by 
his  disciples  at  the  early  age  of  forty-four.  Thomas 
a  Kempis  is  authority  for  his  relation  to  the  brother- 
hood, referring  to  him  as  '^Nostrm  devotionis  funda- 
tor."^^  However,  the  suggestion  came  from  his  disciple 
Florentius,  as  the  author  of  the  **  Chronicle  of  Windes- 
heim'*^^  relates.  One  day  this  youth  said  to  Gerhard, 
* '  Dear  Master,  what  harm  would  it  do  were  I  and  these 
clerks,  who  are  here  copying,  to  put  our  weekly  earn- 
ings into  a  common  fund  together?''  **Live  together!" 
-was  the  response;  **the  mendicant  monks  would  do  their 
worst  to  prevent  us."^^  **But  what,"  said  Florentius, 
**is  to  prevent  us  making  the  trial?  Perhaps  God  would 
give  us  success."  *'Well,  then,"  Gerhard  exclaimed, 
**in  God's  name  commence.  I  will  be  your  advocate, 
and  faithfully  defend  you  against  all  who  rise  up 
against  you."  With  this  permission  a  society  was 
formed,  under  the  patronage  and  personal  care  of 
Groote,  whose  own  character  had  been  conformed  to 

"  Ullman,  op.  cit.,  devotes  his  Book  III  to  this  society,  and  B.  M. 
Jones,  op.  cit.,  gives  chapter  xiv  to  its  history. 

"  '  'Life  of  Florentius, ' '  Thomas  k  Kempis,  Preface. 

"John  Buschius,  or  Busch  ("Chronicon  Canonicorum  Regularium 
Ord.   S.  Aug.   Oapituli  Windesemensis,"   Antwerp,   1621). 

"  The  CHironicle  of  Windesheim  shows  that  this  fear  was  not  mis- 
taken. 

88 


LOLLARDS 

apostolical  ideals  by  the  influence  first  of  Heinrich  of 
Kalker,  a  devout  Carthusian,"  and  later  of  Jan  Ruys- 
broek/«  whom  he  visited  at  the  monastery  of  Griinthal, 
and  from  whom,  says  his  famous  disciple,  *'he  heard 
many  secrets  of  heaven,  "^»  some  of  which  he  commit- 
ted to  writing  lest  he  might  forget  them.  Ruysbroek 
is  the  link  between  the  Friends  of  God  and  the  new 
society.  The  whole  thought  of  the  Brothers  of  the 
Common  Life  was  to  combine  for  the  cultivation  of 
genuine  piety.  **A11  lived  in  community,  in  poverty, 
chastity,  and  perfect  obedience  to  their  superiors,"  is 
the  somewhat  stereotyped  description  of  Dr.  Cruise,^* 
**all  worked  for  the  common  good,  and  contributed  their 
earnings  to  the  general  fund,  spending  any  vacant  time 
in  prayer,  pious  reading,  works  of  charity,  and  alms- 
giving.'' ''And  the  multitude  of  believers  had  but  one 
heart  and  one  soul.  For  neither  was  there  any  one 
needy  among  them,  for  as  many  as  were  owners  of  lands 
or  houses  sold  them  and  brought  the  price  of  the  things 
they  had  sold  and  laid  it  down  before  the  feet  of  the 
apostles. '' ^^  Brother-houses  arose,  whose  inmates  were 
not  conventual  in  separation  from  the  world,  but  made 
common  cause  without  infringing  the  rights  of  private 
liberty.  The  members  were  not  placed  under  perma- 
nent vows,  and  unlike  the  mendicants  and  thus  excit- 
ing their  jealousy,^^  they  lived  upon  their  own  labor 
and  resources  without  begging.  They  wore  a  simple 
garb  and  lived  simply.     *'The  grand  object  of  the  so- 

"  '  'Among  the  Carthusians  the  light  of  Heavenly  Life  remained, 
though  concealed." — Thomas  h  Kempis,  "Vita  Gerh.,"  chapter  iv.  The 
writings  of  h  Kempis  and  Busch  are  the  contemporary  authorities. 

"Supra,  under   "Friends  of  God,"  p.   80. 

"The  interview  is  recorded  in  chapter  x,  "Thomas  &  Kempis,'* 
op.   cit. 

»•  Thomas  h.  Kempis,"   F.  R.  Cruise,  M.  D.,  p.  46. 

"Acts  IV,   32,   34,   35. 

22  "Gerhard  Groote  the  Great,"  M.  T.  Kelley,  "The  Month,  A  Cath- 
olic Magazine,"  October,  1896. 

89 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

cieties/'  says  Ullman,^^  "was  the  establishment,  exem- 
plification, and  spread  of  practical  Christianity/'^* 
Groote,  who  was  never  a  priest,  was  an  ardent,  popular 
preacher,  using  the  vernacular  with  power.  He  effected 
many  conversions,  loved  prayer  and  the  Scriptures,^*^ 
and  lived  the  life  which  he  proclaimed,  as  most  faith- 
fully did  many  of  his  followers.  Moreover,  the  brothers 
gave  attention  to  the  education  of  the  young,  the  tran- 
scription of  manuscripts  relating  to  religious  and  scien- 
tific subjects,  and  in  their  houses  were  used  some  of 
the  first  printing-presses.  The  master  placed  all  em- 
phasis in  education  upon  the  formation  of  good  lives. 
He  had  it  in  mind  to  found  a  monastic  order,  but  this 
was  left  to  Florentius,  whom  he  appointed  as  his  suc- 
cessor. Groote  did  not  live  to  see  his  brotherhood  de- 
generate, nor  could  he  have  foreseen  the  flowering  of 
his  genius  in  his  most  famous  follower,  who  was  but 
four  years  of  age  when  he  died.  There  has  been  consid- 
erable controversy  as  to  Groote 's  relation  to  reforma- 
tion doctrihes.  A  writer^®  in  the  Month,  a  Catholic  mag- 
azine, admits  that  he  *' unhesitatingly  attacked  the  evil 
lives  of  many  of  his  hearers  and  he  strongly  denounced 
the  abuses  of  excessive  wealth  and  idleness  that  existed 
in  some  of  the  monasteries,''  but  he  adds:  '* These  stern 
denunciations  of  such  abuses  have  induced  many  Prot- 
estants to  consider  Gerhard  Groote  as  one  of  Luther's 
precursors,  a  mistaken  idea  which  is  fully  refuted  by 
the  fact  that  he  ever  raised  his  voice  in  warning  against 
all  heresies,  especially  the  doctrines  of  Wyclif,  the 
Lollard.  He  was  known  as  the  Ketzenhammer  (Ham- 
mer of  Heretics),  an  epitaph  which  could  scarcely  be 
applied  to  a  forerunner  of  Luther  and  Calvin."    J.  P. 

»0p.  cit.,  Bk.  Ill,  Part  2,  cap.  i,  p.  71. 

"*  Jones,  "Stud.  Myst.  Belig.,"  p.  320,  says,  "Their  emphasis  was  on 
practice  rather  than  on  contemplation." 

''"Vita  Gerh.  h  Kempis,"  chapters  xii,  xiii,  xiv. 
»M.   T.   Kelly,   October,    1896. 

90 


LOLLARDS 

Arthur,  introducing  his  translation  of  ''Thomas  a  Kem- 
pis,'^  makes  the  same  argument  more  spaciously.  On 
the  other  hand  UUman,  Kettlewell,  and  others  quote 
words  which  seem  to  point  to  a  break  with  "the  Church 
in  principle,  if  not  in  act.  **The  decadence  of  the 
Church  is  visible  in  everything.  We  suffer  especially 
in  the  chief,  the  pope.  I  hold  indisputably  that  the 
luminaries  of  the  Church  must  be  overthrown.  ^'^^ 
Groote's  suspension  from  preaching  by  the  pope,  per- 
haps never  lifted  during  the  later  years  of  his  life,  is 
also  cited,  his  obedience  being  explained  as  due  to  his 
disposition  and  to  the  circumstances.  Professor  Dargan 
speaks  broadly,  **The  influence  of  his  life  and  of  his 
brotherhood  was  great  in  producing  other  preachers  of 
evangelical  tendencies  and  in  preparing  the  way  for 
the  Reformation. "  2^ 

Two  years  after  Gerard's  death,  with  six  of  the 
brethren,  Florentius  Radewyn  founded  the  monastery 
and  theological  schools  known  as  the  Circle  of  Windes- 
heim.  He  developed  the  whole  brotherhood,  which  ex- 
tended widely.  He  had  been  converted  by  the  preach- 
ing of  Groote,^^  and  fully  adopted  his  ideas  of  humility 
and  simplicity,  a  Kempis  relates^*  that,  needing  a  new 
cloak,  he  asked  the  tailor,  ''Do  you  know  how  to  make 
a  mean  garment?'' — intending  not  an  old^^  garment, 
as  one  has  said,  but  one  plain  to  the  extreme.  Floren- 
tius fed  the  poor,  cared  for  the  sick,  washed  beggars, 
lived  the  life  of  a  devoted  ascetic,  gave  laws  to  the 
brotherhood,  commending  always  "the  unity  of 
Brotherly  Love."^^  He  was  the  mainspring  and  soul 
of  these  religious  communities.     "He  was  the  flower 


«  "Thomas  &  Kempis,"   S.  Kettlewell,  Vol.  I,  149  and  150. 

""History  of  Preaching,"   E.  0.  Dargan,  p.   330. 

»  "Life  of  Florentius,   "  Thomas  &  Kempis,  chapter  vi. 

■"Ibid,  chapter  xi. 

»i  Jones,  op.  cit.,  p.  322,  note  1. 

«a  Kempis,  op.  cit.,  chapter  xxviii. 

91 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

and  model  of  the  devout  life  to  which  all  the  brethren 
looked  up."^^  **He  may  be  considered  as  the  second 
founder  of  the  society,  and  contributed  even  more  than 
Gerhard  himself  to  the  full  development  of  its  institu- 
tions.''^^ 

The  work  of  Florentius,  as  well  as  that  of  his  mas- 
ter, was  brought  to  its  height  in  Thomas  a  Kempis, 
whose  influence  upon  the  world  has  been  so  profound. 
His  real  name  was  Haemerlein,  or  Haemerken  (a  little 
hammer),  and  he  was  born  of  humble  parents  about 
1380  in  Kempen,  near  Cologne,  from  which  place  the 
name  a  Kempis  is  derived.  At  thirteen  years  of  age 
he  followed  his  brother  John  to  the  schools  of  the  Breth- 
ren of  the  Common  Life  at  Deventer,  Holland.  There 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  Florentius,  whose  pres- 
ence inspired  and  deeply  influenced  his  life.  *'He  first 
launched  me  for  the  service  of  God,  and  in  the  fullness 
of  time  steered  me  to  the  haven  of  the  monastery."^® 
In  1400  Thomas  united  with  the  community  at  Mount 
St.  Agnes,  where  he  passed  seventy  years,  and  where 
was  produced  the  book  which  has  given  him  so  large  a 
place  in  Christian  history.  In  this  instance  the  work 
is  the  man.  Thomas  a  Kempis  sinks  out  of  sight  behind 
his  great  creation.  He  became  sub-prior,  and  procura- 
tor of  the  monastery;  there  are  records  of  his  inner 
struggles  and  of  his  useful  labors;  his  benign  influence 
upon  his  disciples  is  a  matter  of  history,  but  the  writ- 
ings are  the  real  title  to  the  world's  interest. 

Modern  criticism,  after  discussing  strenuously  the 
claims  of  many  rivals,  Walter  Hilton,  Chancellor  John 
le  Charlier  de  Gerson,  St.  Bernard,  and  an  unknown 
Abbot  Gerson  of  Vercelli,  holds  Thomas  Haemerlein 's 
authorship  of  the  *' Imitation  of  Christ"  to  be  firmly 

» Kettlewell,  op.  cit.,  I,  p.  210. 

'*Ullmaii,  op.  cit.,  Bk.  Ill,  Part  2,  cap.  ii. 

''"Life  of  Florentius,"   h  Kempis,  Preface,   4. 

92 


LOLLARDS 

established.^^  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  merits 
or  to  undertake  the  exposition  of  this  remarkable  work, 
representing  a  scheme  of  holy  living  and  dying.  Views 
about  it  are  not  all  favorable.  It  was  criticised  severely 
by  Dean  Milman,  who  charged  that  the  Imitation  be- 
gins and  ends  in  self.  **That  which  distinguishes 
Christ's  religion — the  Love  of  Man — is  entirely  and  ab- 
solutely left  out."^^  De  Montmorency  ably  replies^* 
to  this  statement  and  to  similar  objections,  quoting  such 
expressions  as  *'si  portari  vis,  porta  et  alium/'^^  *'He 
does  weU  that  serves  the  community  rather  than  his 
own  will,''**  **If  thou  intend  and  seek  nothing  else  but 
the  pleasure  of  God  and  the  good  of  thy  neighbor,  thou 
shalt  enjoy  perfect  internal  freedom."*^  Thackeray's 
severe  strictures  are  answered  in  the  same  excellent 
treatise,*^  which  also  quotes  the  tributes  of  a  host  of 
eminent  persons.  Joseph  Shaylor  also  names  as 
*' amongst  those  who  have  testified  to  its  stimulating  in- 
fluence such  able  and  varied  workers  as  General  Gordon, 
John  Wesley,  Dr.  Pusey,  George  Eliot,  W.  E.  Gladstone, 
and  John  Keble.**  Azarias,  a  Brother  of  the  Christian 
schools,  in  his  essay  on  the  spiritual  sense  of  the  Imi- 
tation, has  recorded  several  charming  accounts  of  the 
power  of  this  writing  in  the  lives  of  a  Moorish  prince, 
of  Louis  XVI,  of  La  Harpe  in  prison,  and  of  a  troubled 
woman.**  George  Eliot's  use  of  the  Imitation  in  de- 
picting the  triumph  of  Maggie  TuUiver  is  well  known.*'' 

"See  Introduction,  "Thomas  h  Kempis,  His  Age  and  Book,"  J.  E. 
G,  De  Montmorency.  Also  chapter  on  "Master  Walter  Hilton  and  the 
Authorship,"   p.   139,   seq. 

""History  of  Latin  Christianity,"   Book  XIV,  cap.  3. 

^  Ut  supra,   Book  XIV,  chapter  iii. 

*»  "Imitation  of  Christ,"   Lib.  II,   cap.   iii. 

^Ibid,  Lib.  I,  cap.  xv. 

*ilbid.  Lib.  II,   cap.  iv. 

*=De  Montmorency,  op.  cit.,  pp.  275,  276. 

«"Some  Favorite  Books  and  Their  Authors,"  Article  "Thomas  h 
Kempis,"   p.  155. 

**  "Phases  of  Thought  and  Criticism,"  Brother  Azarias,  pp.  119-122. 

**  "Mill  on  the  Floss,"   Bk.  IV,   chapter  iii. 

93 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

No  doubt  it  must  be  held  that  this  book  is  too  strongly 
introspective,*^  and  that  it  is  cast  in  the  mediaeval  mold, 
but  with  these  reservations  it  must  be  regarded  as  be- 
ing not  only  one  of  the  most  sincere  expressions  of 
Christian  devotion,  but  as  a  work  whose  influence  upon 
human  character  and  life  has  been  most  salutary.  It 
has  been  denied,  though  not  successfully,  that  the  **  Imi- 
tation" is  a  mystical  writing.  The  general  opinion  is 
that  it  represents  the  highest  level  of  its  age  and  the 
summum  studium  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life. 
To  have  prodi^ced  one  such  author  and  book  would  be 
sufficient  glory  for  any  institution. 

Another  great  name  associated  with  this  order  is 
John  Wessel.  Educated  in  the  Brother's  institution  at 
ZwoUe,  and  profoundly  impressed  by  Thomas  a  Kem- 
pis,'^^  and  later  by  John  of  Cologne,  he  became  an  orig- 
inal and  aggressive  thinker  and  teacher  of  such  a  re- 
formatory spirit  as  led  Luther  to  say  of  him,  **If  I 
had  read  his  works  before,  my  enemies  might  have  sup- 
posed that  I  learnt  everything  from  Wessel,  such  a 
perfect  coincidence  there  is  in  our  opinions."*^  "Wessel 
is  the  link  between  the  mystics  and  the  Reformation. 
At  the  period  of  the  later  movement  the  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life  were  forced  to  choose  between  be- 
coming Protestants,  which  step  was  taken  by  many  of 
them,  and  turning  their  institutions  formally  into  Cath- 
olic monasteries,  which  occurred  in  the  sections  where 
the  reform  spirit  was  weakest.  The  Jesuits  dispossessed 
them  of  part  of  their  establishments,  and  at  length 
the  institution  ceased.    **In  this  issue,  however,  nothing 

**  '*  'The  Imitation  of  Christ'  is  by  no  means  the  last  word  of  Chris- 
tianity. It  is  not  a  full  account  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  .  .  . 
but  the  heart  of  it  is  soujid  and  genuine."  "Studies  in  Mystical  Re- 
ligion,"  Jones,  p.  331. 

"  Ullman,  op.  cit.,  thinks  the  influence  reciprocal,  and  may  have 
helped  free  the  Imitation  from  many  ingredients  of  the  Catholicism  of 
the  time.     Book  IV,  Part  I,  cap.  i,  274. 

**Iiuther,  preface  to  Leipsic  ed.,   1552,  writings  of  Wessel. 

94 


LOLLARDS 

essential  was  lost,  for  all  the  good  at  which  the  Brethren 
aimed  had  been  transferred  into  the  general  civilization 
of  the  age,  and  the  spirit  of  apostolical,  free,  earnest, 
popular,  and  practical  piety  had  found  representatives 
who  far  excelled  Gerhard,  Florentius,  and  Thomas.  It 
had  formed  a  society  which  rose  above  the  narrow  limits 
of  a  Brother-house  to  the  liberty,  height,  and  compre- 
hensive greatness  of  a  Church.''*^ 

«Ullman,  op.  cit.,  Bk.  HI,  Part  4,  cap.  ii,  p.  177. 


95 


VIII 

GUILDS  AND  SECRET  SOCIETIES 

TRADE  AND  SOCIAL  FRATERNITIES 

A  CLASS  of  societies  called  Guilds^  deserves  attention  in 
connection  with  that  period  of  the  Middle  Ages  through 
which  our  thought  is  passing.  The  word  *' guild,"  or 
*'gild,"  is  of  Old  English  origin  and  refers  to  a  set 
payment.^  A  guild  is  therefore  a  company  of  those 
who  pay,  the  essential  principle  being  the  banding  to- 
gether for  mutual  help.  The  idea  of  association  for  the 
common  good  is  of  ancient  origin.  The  Romans,  as  we 
have  seen,  had  societies  for  good  fellowship,  for  the  in- 
terests of  their  crafts,  for  religion,  and  for  sickness  and 
burial.  So  also  the  Greeks  had  the  Branoi  or  Thiasoi, 
which  were  more  closely  akin  to  the  mediaeval  guilds 
than  were  the  Roman  collegia.^  In  the  best  discussions 
of  early  Church  history  it  is  stated  that  from  the  be- 
ginning Christianity  made  use  of  these  already  existing 
societies  and  adapted  them  to  her  purposes,*  and  when 

^Walford  in   "Gilds,"   p.   1,   says  Guild  is   erroneous  spelling. 

2 Another  derivation  is  from  the  Danish  "gilde,"  feast,  banquet;  or 
from  the  Welsh  "gwyl;"  Breton  "goel;"  Dutch  "guide,"  feast  or 
holiday;  "History  and  Development  of  Guilds,"  Brentano,  Contents, 
note  1.  Walford  thinks  ("Gilds,"  p.  2)  the  word  signifies  "a  body  of 
men  associated  together  under  oath  for  a  common  purpose." 

^Staley  in  "The  Guilds  of  Florence,"  however,  says:  "Tfhe  origin 
of  the  Florentine  Guilds  has  been  rightly  traced  to  the  Corporations  of 
Merchants  and  Artisans,  which  existed  in  Rome  under  Numa  Pompilius. 
They  were  called  'Collegia'  or  'Corpora  Opificum  et  Artificium.'  "  p.  33. 
Coote  also,  in  "Ordinances  of  the  Secular  Gilds  of  London,"  considers 
it  proved  that  the  English  Guilds  are  to  be  regarded  as  of  Roman,  not 
of  Anglo-Saxon  origin,  the  Saxons  having  found  the  colleges  already  in 
existence,  which  they  shaped  to  conformity  to  their  own  institutions. 

*See  Hatch,  "Bampton  Irectures,"  p.  287,  on  extent  to  which  early 
Christians  availed  themselves  of  details  of  existing  pagan  forms  of  or- 
ganization. 


GUILDS  AND  SECRET  SOCIETIES 

Christianity  was  brought  from  the  South  into  Northern 
Europe,  as  Brentano  says,  *'the  spirit  of  association  re- 
ceived a  mighty  impulse  and  the  gilds  spread  themselves 
rapidly  under  the  influence  of  Christian  doctrine.'* 

The  most  important  of  the  guilds  of  the  Middle 
Ages  were  the  peace,  the  social-religious,  and  the  trade 
guilds. 

Faith  or  peace  guilds  were  associations  for  the 
mutual  defense.  Traces  of  them  in  Europe  from  the 
seventh  century  are  indicated,  for  example,  in  the  laws 
of  Kings  Alfred,  Ina,  and  Athelstan,  reproducing  still 
older  statutes.  Abroad  these  societies  extended  over  the 
continent,  where,  in  the  unsettled  times  of  feudal  strife, 
they  were  often  greatly  needed  and  most  useful.  They 
frequently  maintained  religious  duties,  but  were  not 
always  wisely  conducted  or  favorably  looked  upon  by 
rulers,  secular  or  ecclesiastic.  "Women  were  sometimes 
admitted,  especially  wives  and  daughters  of  guild- 
brothers,  but  they  never  shared  in  councils  or  adminis- 
tration. 

The  earliest  and  in  some  respects  the  most  popular 
of  the  guilds  were  those  denominated  religious-social. 
Really  the  term  includes  societies  almost  purely  social 
in  character,  although  these  were  not  numerous  until 
after  the  Reformation,  when  they  came  to  form  a  to- 
tally distinct  class.^  The  religious  guilds  had  a  very 
remote  antiquity  in  England.  Their  especial  object  was 
to  unite  the  members  in  every  exercise  of  religion,  and 
especially  to  associate  them  in  veneration  of  religious 
mysteries,  and  in  honor  of  saints.  They  came  to  exist 
widely  in  all  countries  of  Europe  where  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  held  sway.  People  of  all  ranks  took 
part  in  their  functions.  The  members  observed  festivals 
with  both  gay  and  serious  rites.  Chief  features  often 
were  the  Scripture  Pieces  or  Miracle  Plays.     In  1409 


■Walford,   "Gilds,"  pp.  18,  19. 

7  97 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

the  Guild  of  Parish  Clerks  of  London  performed  the 
play  '* Creation  of  the  "World."  The  Gild  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer^  at  York  is  an  illustration  of  guilds  founded 
with  the  purpose  of  performing  such  rites  in  perpetuity. 
The  famous  Oberammergau  "Passion  Play"  is  a  conti- 
nental instance  of  the  same  kind.  The  members  of  re- 
ligious guilds  were  often  equipped  with  livery  which 
they  wore  on  special  occasions,  and  while  it  was  usually 
emphasized  in  the  statutes  that  mutual  assistance  and 
justice,  not  eating  and  drinking,  were  the  principal  ob- 
jects to  be  sought,  nevertheless  there  was  much  feast- 
ing, and  excessive  drinking-bouts  sometimes  occurred. 

The  so-called  ''Gilds  of  the  Kalendars"^  are  not 
given  our  attention,  as  they  were  the  only  guilds  com- 
posed wholly  of  ecclesiastics,  although  at  a  late  period 
laymen  sometimes  had  a  part  even  in  these  societies. 

Trade-guilds,  for  which  beginnings  antedating  Chris- 
tianity have  been  claimed,^  were  of  two  orders:  guilds- 
merchant  and  craft-guilds.  The  uncertain  state  of  me- 
diaeval society  made  it  seem  wise  for  merchants  to  com- 
bine for  the  protection  of  their  interests,  and  sometimes 
the  law  of  the  guild  became  later  the  law  of  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole.^  The  great  cities^^  and  the  conti- 
nent substituted  the  trade-guild  for  that  of  merchants. 
Various  crafts  bound  themselves  together  to  insure  good 
workmanship  and  to  protect  mutual  profits. 

Perhaps  no  better  account  of  the  origin  of  English 
trade  guilds  and  of  their  development  from  merchant 
to  craft  foundations  can  be  given  than  that  of  H.  R. 

«rbid,  p.  255:  "This  play  met  with  so  much  favor  that  many  said, 
'Would  that  this  play  could  he  kept  up  in  this  city,  for  the  health  of 
the  souls  and  for  the  comfort  of  the  citizens  and  neighbors.'  " 

'Waif or d,  "Gilds,"  chap.  v. 

"See  article  "Brotherhoods,"  Chambers's  "Journal,"  Apr.  24,  1869. 
p.  261. 

'See  chap,  vi,  "Influence  of  the  Gild  Upon  the  Municipal  Constitu- 
tion,"    "The  Gild  Merchant,"  C.  Gross. 

i^See  Norton,  "Oommentaries  on  Iiondon." 

98 


GUILDS  AND  SECRET  SOCIETIES 

Fox  Bourne  in  ''Famous  London  Merchants."^*  This 
quaint  little  book  says:  ''Little  colonies  of  foreigners 
(Germans,  Lombards,  and  Jews),  bound  together  by- 
strict  rules  and  pledged  in  all  ways  to  help  one  another 
in  their  various  occupations,  set  the  fashion  of  guilds 
or  trading  companies  of  Englishmen.  When  and  how 
they  first  began  we  do  not  know.  They  seem  to  have 
existed  in  some  shape  even  before  the  Norman  Conquest, 
and  soon  after  that  event  they  became  of  great  impor- 
tance. Edward  III,  seeing  how  useful  they  were  to  the 
progress  of  commerce,  and  of  the  nation  which  owed 
so  much  to  commerce,  did  all  he  could  to  strengthen 
them.  Forty-eight  separate  guilds  were  recognized  by 
him,  between  which  the  business  of  the  city  was  divided. 
No  one  was  allowed  to  take  part  in  trade  unless  he  was 
a  member  of  the  guild  established  for  his  special  calling 
and  bound  himself  to  work  in  friendship  with  all  the 
other  members  and  to  have  no  dealings  with  any  un- 
lawful traders  who  were  members  of  no  guilds.  One 
good  feature  in  these  guilds  was  the  care  with  which 
they  were  pledged  to  assist  their  aged  and  unfortunate 
members  and  the  orphans  of  all  who  died  young,  excel- 
lent relics  of  which  appear  in  the  many  city  charities 
now  existing.  They  were  not  merely  good,  however,  but 
necessary  to  the  times.  The  times  were  too  violent  and 
commerce  was  too  small  and  weak  for  separate  traders 
to  be  able  to  hold  their  own  against  tyrannical  barons 
at  home,  pirates  on  the  sea,  and  enemies  in  foreign  lands. 
It  was  only  by  association  that  they  became  strong,  and 
certainly  strength  came  thus  to  the  merchants  of  the 
Middle  Ages." 

Some  of  the  old  guilds  were  devoted  to  work  which 
modern  merchants  would  repudiate.  The  chandlers, 
the  masons,  the  bakers,  the  hatters,  the  barbers,  the 
painters,  the  wood-sawyers,  and  the  brush-makers  were 

"Harper  Bros.,    1869,   pp.    22-5,   largely  taken,    doubtless,   from  Ly- 
eon's   "Model  Merchant  of  the  Middle  Ages." 

99 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

concerned  in  occupations  that  are  now  held  proper  for 
small  tradesmen  and  artisans,  not  for  merchants.  Fish- 
mongers are  now  generally  plebeians;  yet  the  Fish- 
mongers' Guild  was  almost  the  most  aristocratic,  as 
well  as  the  oldest,  of  the  ancient  city  companies.  These 
guilds  were  liveried,  and  sometimes  appeared  in  pa- 
geants of  great  splendor,  as  when  Richard  11^^  was  en- 
tertained at  London  with  a  vast  procession  including  all 
the  guilds,  of  which  occasion  a  charmed  reporter  says, 
**None  seeing  this  company  could  doubt  that  he  looked 
upon  a  troop  of  angels." 

For  a  long  time  the  most  influential  of  all  English 
guilds  were  the  grocers'  and  mercers',  and  the  ancient 
Society  of  Merchants  of  the  Staple,  who  were  jobbers 
of  materials  for  manufacture.  The  Brotherhood  of 
Knights  of  St.  Thomas  a  Becket  occupied  a  hospital 
founded  by  a  sister  of  Becket,  Agnes  de  Helles  and 
her  husband,  who  appointed  the  mercers  its  patrons. 
The  incorporation  was  by  Henry  IV,  and  the  hospital 
and  company  were  closely  related  until  the  Reforma- 
tion.^^ The  Company  of  Merchant  Adventurers  came 
from  the  mercers  and  took  the  famous  motto,  *'Dieu 
nous  donne  honne  adventure/^ 

In  Europe  the  craft-guilds  carried  on  prolonged  po- 
litical struggles  against  the  aristocracy,  and  they  gained 
the  supremacy  in  some  German  cities.  The  constitu- 
tions of  trade-guilds  provided  for  the  usual  offices,  in- 
cluding a  master,  or  alderman.  They  also  made  pro- 
vision   for    religious    observances,^*    mutual    aid,    and 

"With  Whittington,  Richard,  who  chartered  them  in  1393,  has  been 
regarded  by  some  as  co-founder  of  the  Mercers.  "The  Liveried  Compa- 
nies of  the  City  of  Liondon,"  W.  Carew  Hazlitt,  p.  174.  However,  the 
Mercers  date  back  to  the  time  of  Gilbert  a  Becket. 

""The  City  Companies  of  London,"  P.  H.  Ditchfield,  pp.  18,  22. 

""The  Craft-Gilds  were  like  the  rest  of  the  Gilds,  religious  frater- 
nities." Walford,  "Gilds,"  p.  44.  "The  Company  of  Girdlers,"  W. 
D.  Smythe,  pp.  173-4,  recounts  the  Church  attendances  of  this  guild, 
whose  origin  is  referred  by  not  very  well  founded  tradition  to  a  lay 
brotherhood  of  the  Order  of  St  Lawrence,  who  maintained  themselves 
by  making  girdles,  ut  supra,  p.  21. 

100 


J      ■>♦,••»      » 


GUILDS  AND  SECRET, SO^JJElltES^' i'^J^i  I 

burial.  They  were  strictly  local  in  their  institutions, 
and  were  suited  to  conditions  which  were  changed  by  the 
era  of  discovery  and  of  modern  industrial  development. 

In  the  early  days  of  trade-guilds  the  meetings  were 
convivial  to  the  point  often  of  intoxication,  and  even  of 
more  objectionable  vulgarities.  *'The  members  drank 
their  fill  of  Rhenish  wine  or  German  beer,  and  enter- 
tained each  other  with  bacchanalian  or  warlike  songs 
which  had  come  down  from  the  days  of  the  vikings.  The 
Church  stepped  in  at  length  and  proposed  hymns  in- 
stead of  these  heathenish  ditties,  establishing  religious 
services  for  each  separate  guild — a  custom  still  retained 
by  such  brotherhoods  as  the  Odd  Fellows  and  Foresters 
in  England. '*^^  Authorities  emphasize  the  **  strongly 
religious  character  of  the  early  guilds,  and  the  punc- 
tiliousness of  their  religious  observances  at  the  shrine 
of  their  patron  saints." 

Not  unrelated  to  the  brotherhoods  of  merchants  and 
of  tradesmen  have  been  associations  of  men  practicing 
the  same  profession,  such  as  the  ancient  and  for  a 
thousand  years  active  and  influential  Order  of  the  Coif, 
or  Serjeants  at  Law,  who  for  long  held  the  exclusive 
right  to  practice  in  the  English  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  and  to  become  judges.  That  these  fraternities 
were  not  unrelated  to  Christianity  is  seen  in  the  remark 
of  a  sympathetic  author,  **Up  to  the  time  of  the  Ref- 
ormation religious  ceremonies  were  also  mixed  up  with 
the  legal  forms  and  festive  observances."^*  For  a  vast 
period  of  time  St.  Paul's,  old  and  new,  is  associated 
with  the  Brothers  of  the  Coif.  Originally  they  met 
their  clients  in  the  sacred  edifice,  each  man  at  his  own 
pillar,  chosen  as  his  place  of  business.  Here  also  were 
held  the  religious  rites  patronized  by  members  of  the 
order  and  associated  with  its  customs;  visits,  offerings, 

"Article   "Brotherhoods,"   Chambers's   "Journal,"  ut  supra. 
»  "The  Order  of  the  Coif,"  "Edinburgh  Review,"  Oct.,  1877,  p.  445. 
101 


GHEIS^i^IAK  BROTHERHOODS 

and  devotions  being  made  at  the  shrines  or  monuments 
of  saints  and  martyrs,  which,  says  a  modern  Serjeant, 
*'seem  at  this  day  hardly  credible. '' ^^  A  survival  of 
these  historic  usages  have  come  down  to  recent  times  in 
the  attendance  of  judges  at  St.  Paul's. 

The  progress  of  the  world  gradually  eliminated 
trade-guilds  on  account  of  their  refusal  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  less  exclusive  conditions,  but  they  have  sur- 
vived in  some  form  in  several  European  countries,  es- 
pecially in  Russia  and  in  Austria.  The  Friendly  So- 
cieties of  Scotland  have  been  shown  to  have  descended 
from  the  old  guilds.  It  has  been  denied  that  the  trades- 
unions,  which  made  their  appearance  during  the  eight- 
eenth century,  owe  their  origin  to  the  guilds,  but  there 
seems  no  good  reason  to  doubt  that  they  represent  a 
more  definite  and  better  organized  application  of  many 
features  of  the  older  societies,  an  evolution  in  the  course 
of  economic  progress  and  of  growing  democracy,  with 
alas!  too  often  hostility  to  religion.  It  is  believed  by 
many,  however,  that  this  attitude  of  organized  labor  is 
passing. 

"Without  a  doubt  guilds,  especially  religious  guilds, 
were  often  started  and  maintained  by  the  best  people 
from  the  purest  of  motives.  They  were  frequently  a 
check  upon  abusive  language,  violence,  fraud,  and  ir- 
religion.  In  the  early  period  they  were  truly  fraternal 
and  of  value  to  society  at  large.  Gradually,  however, 
baser  motives  crept  in,  and  evil  practices  came  to 
abound.  This  was  true  not  only  of  the  craft-guilds,  of 
which  we  find  Sigismund,  Emperor  of  Germany,  bit- 
terly complaining  in  1434  that  they  followed  with  par- 
tiality their  own  advantages  only,  to  the  public  detri- 
ment, and  of  which  the  English  Commons  declared  to 
Henry  VI  about  the  same  time  that  they  abused  their 
privileges  in  a  manner  hurtful  to  the  common  profit: 

""The  Order  of  the  Coif,"  Alexander  Pullins,  pp.  243-45. 

102 


GUILDS  AND  SECRET  SOCIETIES 

the  religious  guilds  were  also  found  to  contain  perni- 
cious evils  on  account  of  which  they  were  strongly  con- 
demned by  many  Christians.  The  Reformation  shook 
all  the  guilds  to  their  foundation,  especially  those 
*' judged  to  be  founded  in  superstition. "  ^^  In  all  Prot- 
estant countries  they  were  abolished.  In  England  the 
act  of  Parliament  of  Henry  VIII  gave  to  the  crown 
the  properties  and  revenues  of  *'all  manner  of  corpo- 
rations, gilds,  fraternities,  companies,  and  fellowships 
of  mysteries  or  crafts. ''^^  This  act  became  more  fully 
operative  in  the  next  reign,  but  in  the  continental  coun- 
tries the  property  was  allowed  to  go  to  the  classes,  es- 
pecially the  poor,  for  whose  benefit  it  was  originally  in- 
tended. Only  such  guilds  survived  as  *' could  take  ref- 
uge under  some  form  of  public  utility  or  corporate  pro- 
tection."^^ In  countries  which  remained  Roman  Cath- 
olic the  old  religious  guilds  continued  to  be  maintained, 
and  there  is  a  modern  revival  of  similar  societies  in  the 
Anglican  Church. 

The  transition  from  the  thought  of  guilds  to  that 
of  secret  societies  is  not  difficult,  since  the  most  famous 
of  the  latter,  the  Freemasons,  originated  with  the  for- 
mer. Secret  societies  are  of  very  ancient  origin.  The 
aborigines  had  a  bewildering  profusion  of  mysteries.^^ 
China  is  honey-combed  with  orders  which  have  existed 
for  ages.  The  mysteries  of  Egypt  and  of  the  Orient, 
and  the  associations  of  priests  and  laymen  to  which  they 
gave  rise  are  to  the  regarded  as  forerunners  of  later  or- 
ganizations. **The  earliest  secret  societies  were  not 
formed  for  political  so  much  as  for  religious  purposes, 

"Madox,   "Firma  Burgi,"  p.  27,  quoted  in  Walford,  p.  82. 

"Herbert,  "History  of  the  Twelve  Livery  Companies  of  London," 
Vol.   I,  p.   113,   seq. 

«» Lambert,  "Two  Thousand  Years  of  Gild  Life,"  p.  390.  Among 
other  works  on  the  general  jsubject  may  be  named  "Guilds  and  Their 
Functions,"  Yeats;  "A  Gossip  About  Guilds,"  Andrews;  "Guilds  and 
Friendly   Societies,"   Ludlow. 

«See  the  elaborate  work  "Primitive  Secret  Societies,"  Button 
Webster,  Ph.  D.,  Macmillan  Oo.,  1908. 

103 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

embracing  every  art  and  science ;  wherefore  religion  lias 

been   truly    called   the    archaeology   of   human   knowl- 
edge. "^^ 

It  is  not  surprising  that  in  spite  of  the  very  appar- 
ent opposition  of  Christianity  to  exclusiveness  or  to  se- 
crecy the  ancient  habit  of  society  should  have  reasserted 
its  power  upon  Christians  in  the  more  worldly  periods 
and  associations  of  Church  history.  The  Hebrew  Ca- 
bala,^^  the  product  of  Judaic  sects,  was  not  without  its 
influence.  Pythagoras,  the  author  of  a  philosophic  and 
political  fraternity,^*  and  Plato  and  Heraclitus  through 
their  metaphysical  occultism  strongly  affected,  if  they 
did  not  produce  the  early  Gnostic  sects,  some  of  which 
ran  into  the  most  extreme  and  immoral  delusions  and 
practices.25  *'The  Manichees  gave  a  Christian  varnish 
to  the  Persian  fire-worship."  In  the  seventh  century 
arose  many  similar  mixtures  of  Christianity  with  Zoro- 
astrian  and  Magian  elements,  which  were  imitated  by 
the  sects  of  Islam.  All  these  esoteric  brotherhoods  serve 
to  illustrate  the  danger  of  '*  mysteries, "  whether  called 
Christian  or  secular. 

The  Vehmgericht,^®  or  Holy  Vehm,  was  a  fraternity 
of  justice  which  was  instituted  in  Westphalia  about  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  because  of  gross  con- 
fusion existing  in  all  judicial  affairs.  This  order  insti- 
tuted private  or  *'free"  courts.  Its  members  were  called 
**wissende,"  *' knowing  ones."    These  courts  **took  cog- 

22  "Secret  Societies  of  All  Ages  and  Countries,"  Charles  William 
Heckethorn,  Vol.  I,  p.  8. 

2*  See  Dr.  Ginsburg's  * 'Essay  on  the  Kabbalah"  for  the  history  of 
this  mystery  and  for  a  list  of  distinguished  believers  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries.     Also   "Kabbalah  Unveiled,"    S.  li.  Mathers. 

2*  "Hysteria,"  Otto  Henne  Am  Rhyn,  pp.  70-86.  Tbe  author  gives 
briefly  an  account  of  the  Pythagorean  League  and  its  successor,  the 
Orphici. 

"For  example,  the  Ophites,  named  from  the  serpent  in  Eden,  the 
Antitacts,  opponents  of  law,  and  the  Adamites,  who  looked  on  marriage 
as  the  fruit  of  sin  and  held  all  carnal  indulgence  lawful. 

2«A  name  without  English  equivalent.  "History  of  the  People  of  the 
Netherlands,"  Blok,  Vol.  II,  p.  39. 

104 


GUILDS  AND  SECRET  SOCIETIES 

nizance  of  all  offenses  against  the  Christian  faith,  the 
Gospel,  and  the  Ten  Commandments. "  ^^  The  move- 
ment was  attended  with  increasing  secrecy  and  soon  cov- 
ered all  Germany.  Its  power  became  terrible  to  evil- 
doers, and  for  some  time  judgment  was  more  impartially 
administered.^*  It  has  been  estimated  that  in  the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century  more  than  one  .hundred  thou- 
sand judges  of  the  ''free'*  courts  were  found  in  the 
empire,  but  abuses  crept  in,  and  by  the  end  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century  nearly  all  the  organizations  had  dis- 
integrated, though  not  till  the  close  of  the  nineteenth 
century  did  the  last  free  Graf  disappear.^^  The  Beati 
Paoli,  Blessed  Pauls,^°  of  Italy  were  a  similar  society, 
probably  of  a  less  worthy  nature.  It  is  believed  to  have 
originated  from  schismatic  Franciscans  and,  while  it  was 
soon  suppressed,  is  sometimes  claimed  to  exist  as  a  se- 
cret society  of  Avengers  in  Sicily. 

One  of  the  most  mysterious  of  all  secret  societies  is 
that  mythical  fraternity,  which  nevertheless  produced 
various  individual  and  associated  devotees,  and  which 
is  called  the  Rosicrucians.  A  learned  German  theolo- 
gian, Johann  Valentin  Andreae,  or  Andreas,  is  by  many 
believed  to  have  written  anonymously,  about  1612  or 
1614,  a  work  entitled  *'Fama  Fraternitas,  R.  C.*'  or 
Rosaceae  Crucis,  calling  upon  European  savants  to  join 
a  society  said  to  have  been  founded  two  hundred  years 
before  by  Christian  Rosenkreuz.     During  a  pilgrimage 

""Secret  Societies,"  Heckethorn,  Vol.  I,  p.  201.  Thomas  Keightley, 
"Secret  Societies  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  p.  400,  says,  "But  it  was  the 
more  helpless  and  oppressed  classes  of  society,  more  especially  the  un- 
happy serfs,  that  most  rejoiced  in  the  existence  of  the  Fehm-tribunals ; 
for  there  only  could  they  hope  to  meet  with  sure  redress." 

2«Petrus  Johannes  Blok,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  p.  40. 

»» The  graf,  now  count,  was  the  court  president.  The  grafs  came  to 
be  first  standing  officials,  then  hereditary  lords  proprietary.  "Hyste- 
ria," op.  cit.,  pp.  149  and  161. 

» Derivation  of  name  unknown.  Some  think  the  founder's  name 
was  Paul,  others  that  St.  Paul's  name  was  taken  as  of  one  who  before 
conversion  was  a  bearer  of  the  sword.  For  a  brief  account  see  "Me- 
aoirs  of  the  Carbonari,"  London,   1821,  pp.  38  and  39. 

105 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

to  the  Holy  Land  the  reputed  founder  had  acquired,  it 
was  claimed,  much  occult  wisdom  of  the  East.  It  was 
an  age  of  interest  in  pseudo-science,  and  valuable  al- 
chemic secrets  were  declared  to  be  held  by  this  brother- 
hood. The  society  was  put  forth  as  Christian  and  Prot- 
estant,^^ and  its  exploitation  created  an  intense  interest ; 
gradually  its  unreality  was  discovered,  but  charla- 
tans and  schemers  seized  eagerly  upon  the  ideas  sug- 
gested, and  a  great  literature  sprang  up.  Recent  works 
hold  very  diverse  opinions  about  the  Rosicrucian 
Brotherhood  and  concerning  Andreae's  relation  to  its 
origin.  A  most  profuse  and  credulous  writer^^  acts  as 
an  exploiter  of  a  modem  theosophical  alchemism,  mak- 
ing Rosicrucianism,  whose  ancient  history  he  aifirms, 
ridiculous  to  a  sane  mind,  but  dangerous  to  addle-pates. 
A  Church  historian^^  holds  that  Andreae  wrote  the  book 
attributed  to  him  as  a  satire  on  his  times,  and  especially 
as  a  rebuke  to  alchemic  and  esoteric  pretensions. 
Astounded  by  being  taken  as  earnestly  advocating  these 
very  evils,  he  founded  a  *' Christian  Brotherhood  for 
the  purpose  of  purging  religion  of  abuses  and  planting 
true  piety.  "^*  Another  student  of  Rosicrucianism 
thinks  Andreae  may  have  been  in  his  youth  a  member 
of  the  Militia  Crucifera  Evangelica,  gathered  in  1598 
at  Lunenburg  by  the  theosophical  mystic,  Simon  Stu- 
dion,  and  which  was  saturated  with  alchemical  ideas 
and  made  Rosicrucian  proclamations.  Later  in  life  he 
lost  his  boyish  delusions,  and  having  proved  the  hollow- 
ness  of  Rosicrucianism,  he  denounced  it  as  a  deception 
and  mockery,  and  attempted  to  replace  it  with  a  prac- 

5^  "Violent  anti-papal  prejudices  and  ultra-Protestant  principles  are 
sufScient  proof  of  a  post-Iiutheran  origin." — "Real  History  of  the  Ro- 
sicrucians,"  Arthur  Edward  Waite,  p.  213. 

^Hargrave  Jennings,  "The  Rosicrucians,  Their  Rites  and  Myste- 
ries,"  etc.,  2  Volumes,  London,   1887. 

''Arnold,  "Kirchen  und  Ketzer-Historie." 

8*  "Hysteria,"  O.  Henne  Am  Rhyn,  p.  178.  In  "Turris  Babel," 
chap.  XXV,  Andreae  proposes  his  Christian  fraternity  in  place  of  the  Ro- 
sicrucians. 

106 


GUILDS  AND  SECRET  SOCIETIES  - 

tical  Christian  association,  non-mystical,  and  without 
occultism.^^  Modern  Rosicrucian  survivals  are  found 
in  various  countries,  and  a  Mason's  degree  is  called  by 
this  name.  The  Knights  of  the  Rosy  Cross  have  placed 
the  imagination  and  the  mythopoeic  aspiration  of  the 
world  in  lasting  debt.  An  offshoot  which  became  very 
numerous  was  the  order  of  Brothers  of  the  Golden  Rosy 
Cross. 

The  Carbonari,  or  Charcoal-burners,  of  Italy  and 
France  were  perhaps  descended  from  the  societies  of 
colliers  (Kohlenbrenner)  and  hewers  of  Northern 
Europe.  Their  mission  was  political,  but  in  order  to 
draw  recruits  from  the  simple-minded  class  of  religion- 
ists they  used  a  ritual  based  in  part  on  the  sacrifices  and 
sufferings  of  Christ.^^ 

The  term  lUuminati  has  been  applied  to  several  dis- 
tinct secret  orders  of  religious  enthusiasts.  A  writer  in 
the  Dublin  University  Magazine^'^  points  out  that  the 
first  use  of  the  word  is  distinctively  Christian,  based  on 
the  term  ^wTto-^evres,  used  of  the  baptized  disciples  of 
Christ  in  Hebrews  6 : 4  and  10 :  32,  to  signify  their  en- 
lightenment in  the  mysteries  of  the  faith.  The  Alom- 
brados  of  Spain  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury were  the  first  organization  to  assume  this  title. 
They  were  attached  to  devotion,  rather  than  to  sacra- 
ments and  good  works.^^  While  probably  with  their 
Lutheranism  they  held  indefensible  gnostic  and  theo- 
sophical  views,  it  may  be  that  they  have  been  badly 
represented  by  the  friends  of  the  Inquisition,  which 
soon  suppressed  them.  The  French  Guerinets  were  ap- 
parently fanatics  who  had  a  vision  of  a  religion  above 
Christianity.     They  did  not  long  survive  the  year  of 

85  For  this  hypothesis,  and  an  account  of  all  theories,  vide  "Real 
History  of  the  Rosicrucians, "    Waite,   chap.  viii. 

38  See  Heckethorn,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  p.  99,  description  of  second  de- 
gree.    "Memoirs  of  the  Carbonari,**  ut  supra. 

»^Jan.,  1873,  p.  67. 

"Ibid,  p.  70. 

107 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

their  birth,  about  1634,  and,  like  the  similar  society  in 
Belgium  in  the  eighteenth  century,  their  career  was  of 
relatively  little  importance. 

Opposition  to  the  Jesuits  was  the  cause  of  the  most 
formidable  and  far-reaching  organization  of  lUumi- 
nati,^^  which  was  instituted  1775  to  1777  by  Professor 
Adam  Weishaupt  of  the  University  of  Ingolstadt,  in  Ba- 
varia. Weishaupt  had  been  educated  in  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  and  there  acquired  much  subtlety  and  skill, 
joined  to  inveterate  hostility  to  the  Jesuitical  system. 
From  the  Freemasons,  whose  ranks  were  filled  with  the 
lately  suppressed  Jesuits,  he  borrowed  much  of  the  or- 
ganization which  he  established,  and  w^hich,  with  the  aid 
of  Baron  Knigge,  a  Masonic  disciple,  he  made  strong. 
The  aim  was  to  establish  the  dominion  of  reason  and 
to  promote  religious  and  political  enlightenment  with- 
out dogmas  or  the  established  forms  of  worship. *<^  This 
order  of  perfectibilists  gathered  many  converts  from 
the  most  intellectual  and  powerful  classes,  but  the  ty- 
rannical plan  of  the  organization  and  an  unfortunate 
quarrel  between  "Weishaupt  and  Knigge  gave  its  enemies 
an  opportunity  to  attempt  its  overthrow,  which  was 
finally  accomplished.  The  movement  was  succeeded  by 
several  unworthy  orders,  such  as  the  Deutsche  Union, 
a  ** silent  brotherhood,"  founded  by  a  knave.^^  The 
part  which  lUuminism  played  in  the  French  Revolution 
is  discussed  in  an  elaborate  article  in  the  Edinburgh 
Review  for  1906,  as  well  as  in  many  histories. 

Of  all  secret  societies  the  most  extensive  and  the 
most  influential  is  that  known  as  Freemasonry,*^  which 
in  symbolism,  if  not  in  its  deeds,  gathers  up  into  itself 

'*  "Secret  Societies  of  the  European  Revolution,"  Thomas  Frost, 
Vol.  I,   p.  23,   et  seq;   also  Heckethorn. 

••A  considerable  and  fairly  appreciative  account  is  given  in  *  Clys- 
ter ia,"  Am  Bhyn,  Part  11,  p.  216  ff. 

"Idem,  p.  226. 

« Chambers's  "Journal,"  1869,  Article  "Brotherhoods,"  p.  263. 
Even  a  largeir  claim  is  here  made. 

108 


GUILDS  AND  SECRET  SOCIETIES 

elements  from  all  previous  fraternities,  sects,  mysteries, 
religions,  and  superstitions.  One  of  its  most  representa- 
tive and  elaborate  histories  speaks  of  the  fraternity  as 
*'a  union  of  all  unions"  and  as  ''the  most  comprehen- 
sive of  all  human  confederacies;''*^  and  indeed,  when 
one  considers  the  various  and  opposing  races  and  phi- 
losophies included  under  the  term  Freemasons,  the  claim 
seems  to  be  abundantly  sustained.  Without  a  doubt 
this  character  of  cosmopolitanism  is  so  marked  that  va- 
rious individuals  and  branches  of  Masonry  in  diverse 
parts  of  the  world,  if  thrown  together,  would  find  them- 
selves, whatever  may  be  their  oaths,  to  be  enemies.  For 
example,  most  Americans  are  out  of  harmony  with  the 
main  ideals  and  practices  of  the  Grand  Orient  of  France, 
which  lodge  is,  indeed,  not  recognized  by  Masons  in 
America  and  Great  Britain,  being  without  profession  of 
belief  in  a  Supreme  Being.  The  African  lodges  of 
America  are  fully  recognized  by  several  European  grand 
lodges,  but  not  by  the  lodges  of  their  own  land.  The 
associations  of  Mormon  Masonry  would  doubtless  be  dis- 
tasteful to  great  numbers  of  Masons  outside  of  the  ter- 
ritory dominated  by  a  spurious  and  polygamous  tjrpe  of 
Christianity. 

It  is  fortunate  for  the  reputation  of  Freemasonry 
that  the  ridiculous  pretences  of  ancient  origin,**  which 
the  fraternity  long  shared  with  most  other  secret  so- 
cieties, and  from  which  some  of  its  most  credulous  rep- 
resentatives have  not  yet  been  able  to  divorce  them- 


«  '  'History  of  the  Ancient  and  Honorable  Fraternity  of  Free  and  Ac- 
cepted Masons,  and  Concordant  Orders,"  H.  L.  Stillson;  Editor-in-Chief, 
Wm.  J.  Hughan,  European  Ed.,  p.  37. 

**  Mackey  wisely  devotes  the  entire  first  volume  of  his  exhaustive 
work,  as  well  as  part  of  the  second,  to  what  he  calls  "Prehistoric  Ma- 
sonry." "The  History  of  Freemasonry,"  Alb«rt  Gallatin  Mackey,  M.  D., 
New  York,  1898.  In  Vol.  H,  p.  407,  he  says,  "I  fall  back,  therefore, 
upon  that  theory  which  since  the  time  of  the  Abbfi  Grandidier  has  been 
gradually  gaining  strength,  and  which  connects  the  Speculative  Masonry 
of  our  own  times  with  the  Operative  Masonry  of  the  Middle  Ages."  See 
also  Vol.  in,  p.  876. 

109 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

selves/^  have  been  discredited  by  competent  Masonic 
authorities.  It  has  long  been  the  tendency  of  certain 
Europeans  to  seek  the  most  ancient  Oriental  derivation 
for  the  fraternity.  Anderson,  Oliver,  and  others  traced 
its  mysteries  to  the  foundation  of  the  world,  and  to  God 
as  their  author.  Various  claimants  began  the  account 
of  Masonry  with  the  building  of  Solomon's  Temple  and 
regarded  the  king  as  the  first  grand  master.  Not  a  few 
traced  its  roots  to  the  earlier  secret  societies  of  Europe 
and  Asia,*^  while  for  a  long  time  the  order  was  sup- 
posed to  date  from  the  Crusades  and  the  Knights  Tem- 
plars. The  nature  of  Masonry  itself  disproves  all  these 
claims,  as  no  such  composite  fraternity  could  date  from 
the  periods  assigned,  and  it  is  now  seen  to  be  proven 
that  the  error  of  the  early  writers  is  based  on  the  tend- 
ency to  transfer  borrowed  symbolism  to  the  period  from 
which  it  was  taken,  and  to  find  therein  evidence  of  con- 
tinuous descent.^^  The  Freemasons  date  from  the  early- 
portion  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  are  descendants 
of  the  Steinmetzen  (stone-masons)  of  Germany  and  of 
similar  building  associations  elsewhere  in  Europe.  The 
terms  *'free"  and  *' accepted''  are  variously  explained. 
It  is  sometimes  taught  that  '*free"  is  from  the  Norman 
**frere"  or  brother,  but  more  likely   it  originally  re- 

*^It  is  regrettable  to  read  such  productions,  put  forth  in  the  name  of 
history,  as  that  contained  in  the  "Origin  of  Freemasonry  and  Knights 
Templar,  1907,"  John  R.  Bennett.  In  the  most  naive  and  childlike  way 
the  author  turns  from  his  account  of  Syrian  mysteries  to  the  Roman 
colleges  of  716  B.  C,  saying  as  he  goes  to  his  modem  (?)  descriptions, 
"In  passing  from  this  brief  outline  of  the  fraternity  in  what  we  may 
properly  ( ! )  denominate  the  ancient  history,  we  will  now  endeavor  to 
trace  its  progress  from  that  period  to  the  more  enlightened  days  of 
modern  architecture." 

*^  Emmanuel  Rebold,  M.  D.,  in  his  "General  History  of  Freemasonry 
in  Europe,"  Paris,  1860,  begins  with  primitive  peoples  of  Southern 
Asia,  with  Hinduism,  and  the  Egyptian  mysteries,  and  then  founds  more 
pretentiously  on  the  Colleges  of  Builders  of  Numa  Pompilius,   715  B.  C. 

*^  William  James  Hughan,  "History  of  the  Ancient,"  etc.,  op.  cit., 
Intro.,  says:  "Freemasonry  undoubtedly  has  adopted  and  absorbed  not 
a  few  of  the  usages  and  customs  of  antiquity.  For  this  reason  many 
have  looked  upon  the  two  as  continuous  developments  of  one  and  the 
same  society,  but  errotieously  to.*'     The  italics  are  his  own. 

110 


GUILDS  AND  SECRET  SOCIETIES 

ferred  either  to  one  who  worked  in  free-stone*^  or  to 
one  who  had  passed  beyond  the  *' cowan''  or  apprentice 
stage,  and  therefore  was  a  free-man  in  his  craft,  by; 
whom  he  was  *' accepted"  as  such. 

In  its  beginnings  as  a  trade-guild,  Freemasonry  was 
based  on  distinctively  Christian  principles  and  prac- 
tices.''^ **The  Cosmopolitan  basis  of  the  society,''  says 
a  skilled  writer,  *' which  was  later  adopted,  did  not 
wholly  satisfy  the  brotherhood.  Initiation  and  member- 
ship without  regard  to  creed,  color,  or  clime  was  an 
extraordinary  departure  from  the  previous  Christian 
foundation  of  the  society. "^°  ''I  am  of  the  opinion," 
adds  the  same  authority,  **that  to  the  dislike  of  the  un- 
sectarian  character  of  the  fraternity  from  1717  is  due 
the  origination  and  spread  of  Masonic  degrees  for  pro- 
fessing Christians  only,  from  about  1735,  or  before." 
As  to  the  underlying  intent  and  purpose  of  Masonry 
with  reference  to  Christianity,  a  diversity  of  views  is 
found  in  the  writings  of  the  craft.  A  writer  previously 
referred  to,^^  and  as  unquestionably  devoted  to  Masonry 
as  he  is  unhistorical  and  inconsistent  in  his  statements, 
declares :  * '  Freemasonry  is  not  only  a  universal  science, 
but  a  world-wide  religion,  and  owes  allegiance  to  no  one 
creed,  and  can  adopt  no  sectarian  dogma  as  such  with- 
out ceasing  thereby  to  be  Masonic.  Drawn  from  the 
Kabbalah,  and  taking  the  Jewish  or  Christian  verbiage 
or  symbols,  it  but  discerns  in  them  universal  truths, 
which  it  recognizes  in  all  other  religions."  This  atti- 
tude, at  best,  represents  a  late  and  perverted  Masoniy, 

^^See  Mackey,  op.  cit.,  vol.  Ill,  chap,  xxiii,  "Two  Classes  of  Work- 
men,  or  the   Freemasons   and  the   Rough  Masons." 

*»As  an  illustration  of  the  attitude  of  the  Stonemasons,  who  were 
the  forerunners  of  the  Freemasons,  take  article  xvii  of  "The  Brother- 
Book  of  1563,"  containing  ordinances  renewed  in  that  year  at  the  Chief 
Lodge  at  Strassburg,  "No  craftsman  or  master  shall  be  received  into  the 
guild  who  goes  not  yearly  to  Holy  Sacrament,  or  keeps  not  Christian 
discipline,  or  squanders  his  substance  in  play,"  etc. 

eoHughan,  op,  cit.,  XXXHI. 

"Bennett,   op.  cit.,  p.  97. 

Ill 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHEHHOODS 

and  another  historian  of  the  order,  not  less  enthusiastic 
in  his  claims  for  its  antiquity  and  value  to  the  world, 
says,  ** Masonry  will  continue,  as  a  means  of  God's  ap- 
pointment, to  win  the  minds  of  men  from  the  error  of 
their  ways  until,  in  conjunction  with  all  the  other  ap- 
pointed means,  the  great  end  is  accomplished,  when 
'every  knee  shall  bow,  and  every  tongue  confess  that 
Jesus  is  the  Christ/' '^^ 

At  the  beginning  Freemasonry  was  purely  operative ; 
that  is,  was  confined  t'o  persons  working  as  stonemasons. 
During  the  great  church-building  period  of  the  Middle 
Ages  the  Mason's  Guild  placed  humanity  in  debt  by 
the  splendid  aid  which  as  builders  they  gave  to  religious 
leaders.  As  the  guild  declined,  Speculative  Masonry 
took  its  place,  the  operative  Masons  taking  into  their 
fellowship  learned  and  prominent  men  from  without, 
perhaps  in  order  to  enlist  their  aid  against  the  nobility.^* 
It  is  the  theory  of  some  that  at  first  these  members  were 
honorary,  or  ''accepted,"  as  distinguished  from  their 
"free"  brothers.  Soon  Speculative  Masonry  altogether 
displaced  the  operative  order,  and  thus  began  the  his- 
tory of  Freemasonry  in  its  modern  sense.  Mackey  says 
' '  the  men  of  science  and  culture  who  had  been  admitted 
into  their  ranks  thought  they  saw  in  the  principle  of 
brotherhood  which  was  still  preserved  a  foundation  for 
another  association,  in  which  the  fraternal  spirit  should 
remain  as  the  bond  of  union  and  the  doctrines  of  sym- 
bolism, hitherto  practically  applied  to  the  science  of 
architecture,  should  be  in  future  directed  to  the  illus- 
tration of  the  science  of  morality."^*  "Long  after- 
ward," he  also  says,  "the  successors  of  these  founders 
of  Speculative  Freemasonry  defined  it  to  be  'a  system 
of  morality,  veiled  in  allegory  and  illustrated  by  sym- 
bols.' "^^ 

^Discussion    of    topic,    Why   Was    Masonry    Instituted?      "Masonic 
History  and  Digest,"  J.  W.  S.  Mitchell,  M.  D.,  Vol.  II,  chap,  viii,  p.  256. 
I*' "Oyclopsedia  of  Fraternities,"   A.  C.   Stevens,  p.  20. 
"  Vol.  IV,  op.  cit.,  p.  881.  -119 

MJbid,  p.  882.  ^-^"^ 


GUILDS  AND  SECRET  SOCIETIES 

The  spread  of  Freemasonry  was  remarkable.  It  is 
represented  in  some  form,  recognized  or  unrecognized, 
in  all  countries,  but  in  Russia  it  is  proscribed,  and  in 
all  Catholic  countries  its  spread  has  been  impeded  by- 
papal  opposition  to  its  secrecy.  The  greatest  growth 
of  Masonic  orders  is  in  Anglo-Saxon  countries,  and  es- 
pecially, in  spite  of  a  widespread  opposition  and  defec- 
tion in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  due  to 
the  Morgan  trouble,^^  in  the  United  States,  where  at 
the  present  time  over  a  million  members  are  claimed. 
Much  opposition  has  developed,  aside  from  that  above 
mentioned.  In  Europe  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  Masonry,  with  other  secret  societies,  was 
accused  of  conspiracy  against  the  existing  order  of  faith 
and  of  society.  ^^  Various  smaller  Protestant  bodies 
have  attacked  Masonry  on  the  same  ground  as  that  of 
its  Romanist  opposition.  Still  the  order  flourishes,  and 
presents  a  mixture  of  conflicting  but  associated  princi- 
ples.*'^ The  strong  points  of  Masonry  are  its  almost  uni- 
versal insistence  upon  the  principal  tenets  of  natural 
religion,  its  general  decency  of  moral  teaching,  and  its 
precepts  of  charity,  which  practice  too  largely  restricts 
to  its  own  members,  and  which  is  not  an  obligation.  It 
is  not  the  fault  of  a  great  many  Freemasons  that  others 
deny  in  life  all  the  moral  preachments  of  the  fraternity ; 
that  large  numbers  use  it  as  a  business  or  political 
rather  than  as  a  fraternal  opportunity,  or  that  in  many 
instances  it  is  made  a  cloak  for  the  absence  of  Chris- 
tianity, or  even  a  weapon  with  which  to  attack  the 
Church. 

"For  a  discussion  of  this  incident  from  the  Masonic  viewpoint,  see 
Mitchell,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  chap,  vi,  "Anti-Masonry  in  the  United  States." 
See  "Masonry  and  Anti-Masonry,"   Creigh,  Phila.,  1854. 

"See  "Proofs  of  a  Conspiracy  Against  All  the  Religions  and  Gov- 
ernments of  Europe, ' '  etc.,  John  Robinson,  A.  M.,  Edinburgh,  and,  in 
1798,  New  York. 

"See  Compilations  of  Masonic  teachings,  as  for  example  "Gems  from 
the  Quarry,"  J.  H.  Brownell,  Detroit,  1893,  particularly  the  brevities 
•t  the  close. 

8  113 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  various  degrees  of  Freemasonry  are  bewildering, 
even  to  its  own  historians,  and  their  full  description 
would  be  as  unprofitable  as  it  would  be  impossible  to 
the  most  learned  Mason.  The  success  of  Masonry  has 
raised  up  a  host  of  modern  secret  orders,  three  hundred 
of  which  Stevens  says  contain  more  than  six  millions  of 
American  members.''®  The  results  to  social  and  religious 
interests  of  all  this  f raternalizing  is  more  than  doubtful, 
since  many  secret  orders  make  no  such  professions  of 
high  principle  as  attend  Freemasonry,  and  not  a  few 
are  not  only  inimical  to  Christianity,  but  immoral. 

"Op.  cit.,  Introduction. 


114 


IX 
BROTHERS  OF  PITY 

HUMANE  AND  PHILANTHROPIC  FRATERNITIES 

The  distresses  of  the  period  in  which  the  Crusades  were 
organized  gave  birth  to  a  new  spirit  of  human  love,  and 
to  charities  whose  influence  has  streamed  down  through 
the  centuries  with  ever  increasing  force  and  value. 

It  has  been  seen  that  from  the  beginning  Christianity 
was  a  gospel  of  brotherhood;  which  is  not  to  say  that 
no  philanthropic  associations  and  deeds  characterized 
the  ancient  world.  [Much  pauperism  always  existed  in 
the  great  centers  of  population,  and  it  was  sometimes 
relieved  at  public  expense.^  Mutual  assistance  or  in- 
surance societies  are  said  to  have  been  formed  in  Greece, 
and  in  Trajan's  time  in  Rome.  Charitable  bequests  are 
mentioned  in  burial  inscriptions,  and  the  collegia  to 
which  reference  has  been  made  in  this  volume^  culti- 
vated the  habit  of  equality  and  the  fraternal  spirit, 
though  they  felt  little  enthusiasm  for  humanity.  Very 
just  are  the  observations  that  **  among  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans  the  human  person  had  no  inherent  worth. 
He  was  of  importance  only  as  a  citizen.  The  majority 
of  the  subjects  of  these  two  great  powers,  being  slaves, 
were  without  any  legal  rights.  The  poor,  whether  slaves 
or  freemen,  were  treated  by  even  the  noblest  and  wisest 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  with  contempt,  or  at  most 

»  "Gesta  Christi,"  Charles  Loring  Brace,  p.  97,  quotes  Naudet, 
"Mem.  sur  les  secours  publics  chez  les  Roraains,"  as  authority  for  the 
statement  that  in  the  year  683  of  the  Roman  Republic  33  per  cent  were 
supported  at  public  expense. 

'Vide  supra,   pp.  14,  and  96-. 

115 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

with  that  pity  which  is  akin  to  contempt."^  Hehrew 
charity  possessed  better  motives,  but  was  self-righteous 
and  exclusive  of  aliens.  The  other  Eastern  nations  pre- 
sent no  better  condition,  even  the  type  of  civilization 
produced  by  Buddhism  being  negative  and  cold  in  its 
philanthropic  principles. 

Early  Christianity  has  been  criticized  as  having  been 
too  individualistic.  Says  a  sociologist:  *'If  the  early 
Church  had  given  as  much  attention  to  the  social  teach- 
ing of  Jesus  as  to  the  individual  emphasis  of  His  mes- 
sage, and  had  preached  these  principles  to  governments 
and  communities  with  the  same  emphasis,  there  would 
never  have  been  the  period  of  the  Dark  Ages,  or  the 
intrigues  and  cabals  that  brought  on  the  wars  following 
the  Protestant  Reformation,  nor  would  the  territory 
once  populated  by  Christian  peoples  possessing  the  or- 
ganized activities  of  a  Christian  civilization  be  now  in- 
habited by  the  followers  of  Mohammed."*  "Without 
disputing  this  statement  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  much 
of  the  time  succeeding  the  Apostolic  Age,  it  should  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  early  Church  was  fraternal,^  that 
it  absorbed  the  best  principles  and  practices  of  the  col- 
legia, and  that  with  its  foundation  began  the  modern 
conviction  of  the  obligation  resting  on  each  man  to  do 
all  in  his  power  to  wisely  relieve  human  misery.  Well 
indeed  had  it  been  for  the  world,  as  the  author  above 
quoted  has  said,  if  the  plain  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ 
and  the  obvious  lesson  of  Church  organization  had  been 

•"Catholic  Dictionary."  Article,  "Charity,"  B.  Randolph,  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  593.  That  the  fact  above  cited  was  not  without  its  influence 
upon  the  ultimate  fate  of  the  Roman  Empire  is  well  known.  "Die  Ge- 
Bchichte  der  Civilisation  zeigt  uns  aber  auch  eine  Gesellschaft  welche 
BO  sehr  in  Selbstsucht  und  Genuszsucht  versunken  war,  dasz  sie  zu 
Grunde  gehen  muszte.  Es  war  die  romische  Welt,"  etc.  "Die  Volks- 
wirthschaf t, "   Dr.  Georg  Ratzinger,  p.  26. 

*  "Social  Aspects  of  Religious  Institutions,"   Edwin  L.  Earp,  p.  84. 

'  Professor  Rauschenbusch,  as  above  stated,  very  ably  controverts 
the  idea  that  early  Christianity  was  communistic  in  any  other  sense  than 
that  of  generosity  and  of  brotherhood,  "Christianity  and  the  Social 
Crisis,"  Walter  Rauschenbusch,  p.  120 ff. 

116 


BROTHERS  OF  PITY 

earlier  recognized,  if  these  facts  had  been  given  due 
weight:  *'He  who  enters  a  church  surrenders  individu- 
alism and  gains  individuality.  He  who  lives  in  a  highly- 
developed  society  continually  sacrifices  individualism; 
but  in  and  through  society  his  individuality?;  becomes 
vigorous.  Thus  it  is  again  true  that  he  who  saves  his 
life  shall  lose  it,  and  he  who  loses  his  life  shall  find  it."* 
Modem  study  of  social  conditions  ever  more  firmly 
fastens  in  Christian  consciousness  the  idea  that  charity 
is  not  the  best  form  of  the  distribution  of  goods.  ^ 
Nevertheless  it  is  one  form  of  amelioration,  and  one 
which  has  always  been  imperative  under  conditions 
which  have  existed,  and  which  are  yet  far  from  being 
entirely  overcome.^  So  far  as  pauperism  has  been  ban- 
ished, and  the  evils  of  penury  lessened,  the  result  is  to 
be  attributed  to  the  development  of  the  Christian  doc- 
trine of  the  Brotherhood  of  Man,  and  to  the  remedial 
measures  which  this  teaching  has  inspired.  *'The  evo- 
lution which  is  slowly  proceeding  in  human  society  is 
not  primarily  intellectual,  but  religious  in  character."^ 
The  fact  has  been  noted  that  as  the  early  centuries  of 
Christian  history  passed,  progress  was  made  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  fraternal  idea,  and  also  that  the  spirit 
of  charity,  which  is  after  all  the  basis  of  later  social  im- 
provements through  educational,  legal,  and  associational 

«  "Socialism  and  Social  Reform,"  Richard  T.  Ely,  p.  351. 

'A  somewhat  unjust  account  of  mediaeval  alms-giving  and  a  true 
statement  of  evils  attendant  upon  this  form  of  relieving  pauperism  may- 
be found  in  "Socialism  and  Christianity,"  Behrends,  chap,  viii,  pp.  217ff. 

*E.  De  Pressense,  "Early  Years  of  Christianity,"  p.  394,  would  seem 
to  regard  poverty  as  having  constituted  a  special  privilege.  "We  know," 
he  says,  "how  high  a  place  of  honor  is  given  to  the  poor  in  the  Church 
of  Christ.  Poverty  has  preserved  a  reflected  ray  of  the  glory  of  Him 
who  humbled  Himself  and  became  poor."  While  it  may  be  true,  as 
Fielding  says,  that  "Charity  does  not  adopt  the  vice  of  its  object,"  it 
often  fosters  that  vice,  and  perpetuates  it.  Yet  it  is  going  too  far  when 
kindness  of  heart  and  almsgiving  are  made  responsible  for  any  major 
portion  of  the  world's  pauperism.  This  accusation  has  been  made,  es- 
pecially concerning  the  charity  of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  Uhlhom,  while 
admitting  partial  responsibility,  well  defends  Christianity  against  the 
general  charge,  and  remarks  upon  the  evils  which  otherwise  humanity 
would  have  suffered.     "Christian  Charity  in  the- Ancient  Church,"  p.  272, 

•"Social  Evolution,"  Benjamin  Kidd,  p.  263. 

117 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

endeavors,  but  which  from  the  middle  of  the  ninth  to 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  suffered  from  terrible 
demoralization,  both  of  State  and  Church,  came  to  its 
fine  flower  in  the  Middle  Ages.  From  that  time  to  the 
present  practically  all  Christian  brotherhoods  have  pro- 
fessed a  true  philanthropy,  which  indeed  not  a  few 
have  faithfully  practiced.  Their  record  proves  that  the 
military  orders,  the  guilds,  which  owe  their  origin  to 
mingled  social,  religious,  and  business  instincts,  and  the 
great  monastic  societies  of  Benedictines,  Cistercians, 
Dominicans,  and  Franciscans,  during  their  better  years 
were  devoted  to  good  works.  Their  philanthropies  be- 
came the  successors  of  diocesan  charities,  monasteries  be- 
ing centers  and  examples  of  religious  life,  of  educational 
culture,  of  industry  in  the  fields  of  agriculture  and  for- 
estry, of  hospitality  to  strangers,  and  of  the  care  of  the 
poor,  of  orphans,  and  of  all  needy  and  distressed  souls. 

Another  order  which  in  extension  and  in  influence  for 
four  centuries  ranked  with  those  just  named  was  that 
of  the  Premonstratensians,  founded  by  Saint  Norbert 
of  Xanten,  about  1120.^®  It  was  named  from  its  first 
site,  Premonstre  (the  field  shiown,  or  foreshown,  having 
been  pointed  out  in  a  vision),  France.  Norbert,  who  in 
youth  was  wild,  was  converted  at  the  age  of  thirty-five, 
and  became  both  a  devotee  and  an  evangelist.  His 
order  spread  until  by  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
it  had  fifteen  hundred  monasteries,  besides  institutions 
for  women,  most  of  them  being  located  in  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Spain.  Later  a  reform  became  necessary, 
and  division  resulted.  The  order  suffered  much  from 
suppressions,  and  is  not  now  strong,  save  in  Austria 
and  Holland. 

Among  orders  comparatively  unknown,  if  not  ob- 
scure, are  quite  a  number  which,  while  not  faultless  in 
many  respects,  are  yet  worthy  of  much  study  and  fre- 

"  * 'General  History  of  the  Catholic  Church,"  Darras,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  198. 

118 


BROTHERS  OF  PITY 

quently  of  deep  respect.  It  will  be  possible  merely  to 
name  a  few  of  the  most  representative  of  these,  inas- 
much as  the  lesser  independent  and  related  fraternities 
are  so  numerous  as  to  defy  description.  Moreover,  those 
to  which  reference  is  made  are  typical  of  the  others. 

The  hospitals,  Xenodochia,  which  originated  as  a 
product  of  Christian  hospitality  and  charity,  during 
the  reign  of  Constantine,  if  not  before,  and  which  at 
first  were  probably  under  the  personal  care  and  govern- 
ment of  the  bishops,^^  and  were  located  in  their  dwell- 
ings, soon  came  to  be  separate  institutions,  and  many 
of  them  were  managed  by  lay  brotherhoods.  At  first 
these  institutions  were  monastic,  comprising  both  clergy 
and  lay  members;  soon,  however,  the  lay  members,  or 
brothers  (conversi)  sought  and  secured  independence  of 
the  monks.  ^^  The  first  known  instance  is  that  of  the 
institution  of  Soror,  at  Siena,  898,  the  Santa  Maria 
Delia  Scala.  Confraternities  or  sodalities,  the  origin  of 
which  was  ancient,  now  increased,  and  at  a  later  period 
religious  congregations  and  associations  began  to  flour- 
ish. The  distinction  between  these  various  terms  is  not 
easy  to  generalize,  and  their  use  is  variable.^^  All  are 
erected  by  canonical  authority.  Confraternities,  gen- 
erally composed  of  laymen,  are  guided  by  ecclesiastical 
authority  for  the  promotion  of  special  works  of  Chris- 
tian charity  or  piety.  Associations  usually  have  simpler 
rules,  but  are  often  devoted  to  the  same  purposes.  In 
France,  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  the  laws  of 

""Christian  Charity  in  the  Ancient  Church,"  Uhlhorn,  p.  325 flf. 

«  "History  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  Wilhelm 
Moeller,  p.  353. 

""In  a  wider  sense,  all  ecclesiastical  associations  of  laymen  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  for  contemplative,  ascetic,  or  practical  purposes, 
are  called  congregations.  In  a  more  special  sense,  ecclesiastical  congre- 
gations are  associations  which,  like  monastic  orders,  lead  a  common  life 
and  are  bound  by  vows.  They  differ  from  the  monastic  orders  by  not 
demanding  from  their  members  the  vow  of  poverty,  by  binding  them  to 
less  stringent  or  to  no  rules  of  retirement  from  the  world,  and  fre- 
quently prescribing  only  the  simple  vow  of  chastity."  McClintock  and 
Strong. 

119 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

tlie  Carlovingians  mention  confraternities  and  guilds. 
Archconf raternities  are  those  which  have  been  extended 
widely. 

The  very  practical  purposes  of  many  fraternities 
commended  themselves  instantly.  The  Italian  Perico- 
lanti,  for  example,  protected  the  virtue  of  young  girls, 
the  society  of  St.  Jerome  della  Carita  was  devoted  to 
the  care  of  prisoners,  the  fraternity  of  St.  Giovanni  De- 
coUato  attended  culprits  to  execution.  Reference  has 
already  been  made  to  the  burial  societies  of  Cologne  and 
of  other  cities  of  Europe.  Attention  should  be  given 
also  to  the  Bridge-builders,^*  Fratres  Pontifices,  of 
Southern  France  and  of  Tuscany.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  twelfth  century,  since  travelers  had  little  security, 
especially  in  passing  rivers,  and  as  they  were  subjected 
to  violent  demands  of  banditti,  to  put  an  end  to  these 
distresses  the  Brothers  of  the  Bridge  instituted  an  asso- 
ciation or  confraternity  which  was  received  with  much 
favor.  The  stated  objects  were  to  build  bridges,  es- 
tablish ferry  boats,  and  to  receive  travelers  in  their  hos- 
pitals on  the  shores  of  rivers.  These  labors  the  Church 
held  to  be  meritorious,^*^  and  indulgences  were  granted 
to  participants  in  them.  The  first  establishment  was  on 
the  Durance  at  a  dangerous  place  called  Maupas,  but 
which,  from  the  accommodation  there  received,  acquired 
the  name  of  Bonpas.  Gautier  relates  of  St.  Benezet 
that  as  a  shepherd  lad  of  twelve  years  he  received  a 
divine  command  to  undertake  bridge-building  over  the 

"Consult  H^lyot-Badiche,  "Dictionnaire  des  ordres  religieux,"  III, 
237;  Gregoire,  "Recherches  historiques  sur  les  congregations  de  frSrea 
pontifes." 

"In   the    "Vision   of   Piers   Ploughman,"    Truth,    among   other   good 
works,  recommends  the  wealthy  English  merchants — 
"And  wikkede  weyes    (bad  roads) 
Wightly  amende, 
And  do  boote  to  brugges  (bridges) 
That  to-broke  were." 
If  they  will  do  the  good  deeds  suggested,   St.  Michael  shall  be  sent  in 
their   last   moments    to    drive   away    devils.      "Vision    of    Piers    Plough- 
man,"  Langland,  4517-20. 

120 


BBOTHERS  OF  PITY 

Rhone  at  Avignon.  On  his  arrival  the  Bishop  of  Avig- 
non was  preaching  to  fortify  his  people  against  a  solar 
eclipse.  Benezet  raised  his  voice  in  the  church  and  said 
that  he  was  come  to  build  a  bridge.  The  bishop  and 
magistrates  repulsed  the  youthful  enthusiast,  but  the 
people  endorsed  his  project,  and  they  had  their  way. 
The  undertaking  began  in  1176  and  was  completed  in 
twelve  years.^^  Every  one  contributed  work  or  money 
under  the  direction  of  Benezet  and  the  brothers.  On 
the  third  pier  was  erected  a  chapel  to  St.  Nicholas,  pa- 
tron of  those  who  navigate  rivers,  and  when  the  leader 
died,  in  1184,  his  body  was  buried  in  this  place.  The 
tomb  of  Benezet  became  celebrated  for  pilgrimages  and 
miracles.  A  conventual  house  and  hospital  were  estab- 
lished, and  the  brotherhood  instituted  by  his  fame  and 
works  was  sanctioned  by  Clement  III  in  1189.  One  of 
the  famous  establishments  of  this  order  was  located  on 
the  banks  of  the  Arno.  Among  the  good  services  done 
was  road-building  and  repairing.  The  order  came  to 
amass  wealth,  and  at  last  fell  into  the  usual  vices  and 
was  secularized  in  1519,  having,  however,  executed  many 
illustrious  works.^'^ 

At  Dauphine  about  1095  a  gentleman  named  Txaston 
and  his  son,  in  thanksgiving  for  deliverance  from  the 
** sacred  fire,'*  or  **St.  Anthony's  fire,"  a  disease  then 
prevalent,  are  said  to  have  founded  the  congregation 
of  Antonines,^^  or  Hospital  Brothers  of  St.  Anthony. 
They  erected  a  hospital  near  the  church  of  St.  Anthony 
at  Saint-Didier  de  la  Mothe,  which  became  the  center 

"Article  "Bridges,"  "New  Edinburgh  Encyclopoedia."  The  "Cath- 
olic Encycl.,"  article  on  "Bridge  Building  Brotherhoods,"  throws  some 
doubt  on  the  origin  of  this  work,  but  none  on  the  nature  and  achieve- 
ments of  the  Association. 

"  "There  were  also  gilds,  those  lay  "brotherhoods  animated  by  the  re- 
ligious spirit,  who  repaired  roads  and  bridges.  The  Gild  of  the  Holy 
Cross  in  Birmingham,  founded  under  Richard  II,  did  this,  and  their  in- 
tervention was  most  valuable."  "English  Wayfaring  Life,"  Jusserand, 
p.  42.     The  entire  chapter  on  "Roads  and  Bridges"  is  instructive. 

"  "History  of  the  Church,"  Birkhaeuser,  p.  496. 

121 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

of  the  order.  Especial  care  was  given  to  sufferers  from 
the  above  named  malady.  The  brothers  wore  a  black 
habit,  the  Greek  letter  Tau  in  blue  decorating  it  in  rep- 
resentation of  St.  Anthony's  cross.  At  first  the  order 
was  strictly  of  laymen,  but  it  was  afterward  given 
monastic  vows  and  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and  it 
lasted  until  the  French  Revolution. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  century  arose  an- 
other order  occasioned  by  the  presence  of  a  dread  dis- 
ease. The  Knights  or  Order  of  St.  Lazarus,  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  modern  Lazarists,^^  had  for  their 
assumed  task  the  cure  of  leprosy.  *'What  is  very  re- 
markable,'' says  Helyot,  ''is  that  they  could  only  elect 
a^  grand  master  a  leprous  Knight  of  the  Hospital  at 
Jerusalem. "  2^  This  lasted  until  the  infidels  had  killed 
all  the  leprous  knights  of  the  institution  in  the  Holy, 
City,  when  the  pontiff  was  besought  to  allow  the  election 
of  a  superior  in  good  health.^^  Michaud  is  inspired 
by  the  action  of  these  brothers.  *'Thus  the  Knights," 
he  says,  *'in  order  to  be  the  better  acquainted  with 
human  miseries,  in  a  manner  ennobled  that  which  is 
most  disgusting  in  the  diseases  of  man.  Did  not  this 
grand  master  of  Lazarus,  who  obliged  himself  to  be 
afflicted  with  the  infirmities  he  was  called  upon  to  alle- 
viate in  others,  imitate,  as  much  as  is  possible  on  earth, 
the  example  of  the  Son  of  God,  who  assumed  a  human 
form  in  order  to  deliver  humanity  ?"^^  This  order  be- 
came privileged  and  well  endowed.  Its  sign  was  a  green 
cross,  and  its  lazarettos  doubtless  accomplished  great 
good,  although  we  have  no  knowledge  as  to  the  remedial 

"  See  p.  152  et  seq. 

2°  "Histoire  des  ordres  monastiques,"  Le  Pfere  Helyot,  I,  p.  263. 
Moeller,  however,  says  that  it  is  not  proved  that  the  grand  master  at  Je- 
rusalem had  to  be  a  leper,  but  he  says  that  this  was  true  in  some  places. 
"Catholic  Encycl,,"   article,    "Order  of  St.  Lazarus." 

21  In  1565,  in  answering  this  request,  Pius  IV  highly  praised  the 
Knights. 

^  "History  of  the  Crusades,"  Joseph  Francois  Michaud,  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  299. 

122 


BROTHERS  OF  PITY 

treatment  which  leprous  patients  received.  After  the 
fall  of  Acre  the  order  became  purely  military  and  was 
soon  suppressed  as  being  no  longer  useful,  and  para- 
sitic. 

The  Italian  Order  of  the  Holy  Cross,  established  in 
Italy  in  1150,  was  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  sick.  About 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  Guy  of  Montpellier 
opened  in  that  city  a  hospital  in  honor  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  prescribing  for  the  brothers  the  rule  of  St. 
Augustine.  This  institute  spread  rapidly  in  France,  and 
throughout  Christendom  generally,  until  the  Brothers 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  controlled  more  than  nine  hundred 
houses.  In  the  beginning  all  were  laymen,  save  for  four 
clerics  for  spiritual  duties.  An  outburst  of  generosity 
enriched  the  Order  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  military  eom- 
manderies  were  formed,  the  **  Militia  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,"  as  they  called  themselves,  causing  much  strife 
in  the  order,  until  at  last,  in  1700,  it  was  pronounced 
purely  regular  and  non-military. 

The  redemption  of  the  multitudes  of  captives  taken 
in  war  by  the  Moslems  was  the  object  which  led  to  the 
formation  of  several  orders  which  were  as  successful 
as  they  were  merciful.  The  Trinitarians,  or  Brethren 
of  the  Holy  Trinity,  were  founded  in  1198  by  St.  John 
of  Matha  and  Felix  of  Valois.  They  adopted  the  rule 
of  St.  Augustine  and  spread  throughout  Europe.^* 
They  brought  much  joy  to  unfortunates  who  were  not 
merely  in  physical  slavery  to  the  Mohammedans,  but 
whose  very  faith  was  in  danger.  It  is  said  that  more 
than  thirty  thousand  Christian  captives  were  rescued 
by  this  active  body,  whose  work  was  supplemented  also 
by  that  of  the  Order  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  established 
by  Peter  Nolasco  in  1218  and  usually  styled  *'TEe  Or- 

23  The  Crutched  or  Crossed  Friars  are  regarded  by  some  as  a  branch 
of  the  Trinitarians.  The  Discalced  Trinitarians  were  a  reformed  order 
founded  by  Juan  Baptista,  and  suppressed  with  the  other  houses  of  the 
order  by  Isabella  II. 

123 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

der  of  Mercy."  The  King  of  Aragon  patronized  this 
society,  whose  members  are  sometimes  called  Maturins 
from  their  home  in  Paris  near  the  chapel  of  St.  Ma- 
turin.  The  number  of  captives  rescued  between  the 
years  1492  and  1691  by  this  one  order  was  over  seven- 
teen thousand.^*  The  name  of  St.  Magdalene,  usually: 
associated  with  societies  for  the  redemption  of  fallen 
women,  was  applied  to  an  order  instituted  in  1270  by 
St.  Louis  of  France,  and  which  was  devoted  to  the  sup- 
pression of  duels. 

Another  interesting  brotherhood  of  the  thirteenth 
century  was  that  of  the  Knights  of  Faith  and  Charity.^^ 
The  public  roads  of  France  being  infested  with  robbers, 
this  order  undertook  to  disperse  these  pests  and  to  make 
safe  the  highways  of  the  land.  The  Knights  were  pat- 
ronized by  that  arch-enemy  of  heretics,  Gregory  IX, 
who  however  bestowed  his  favor  so  liberally  upon  the 
mendicant  orders  that  from  the  fact  of  his  support  it 
does  not  follow  that  the  Knights  of  Faith  and  Charity 
were  specially  devoted  to  ecclesiastical  or  doctrinal  in- 
terests. 

Somewhat  earlier  than  the  Franciscans  arose  the 
Italian  Order  of  Crossbearers,  Crociferi,  or  Crucigeri, 
distinguished  for  wearing  a  wooden  or  metal  cross.  The 
foundation  was  made  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bologna, 
and  the  purpose  was  to  tend  the  sick.  Sabatier  says: 
* '  This  order  deserves  to  be  better  known ;  it  was  founded 
under  Alexander  III  and  rapidly  spread  all  over  Cen- 
tral Italy  and  the  East.  In  Francis'  lifetime  it  had  in 
Italy  and  the  Holy  Land  about  forty  houses  dedicated 
to  the  care  of  lepers. ' '  ^®  Several  later  orders  have  also 
been  called  by  this  name. 

The  visitor  in  Florence  can  not  fail  to  be  impressed 

^"History  of  the  Church,"  Birkhaeuser,  pp.  495-6. 
^•'Church  History,"   Mosheim,  Part  II,  chap,  ii,  xix. 
^  "Life  of   St.   Francis  of  Assisi,"    Paul   Sabatier,   p.    108,   nota    2. 
Also,   Moeller,  op.   cit.,  p.   353. 

124 


BROTHERS  OF  PITY 

by  the  black-gowned,  hooded,  and  masked  men  who 
hurry  through  the  streets  of  that  historic  city  bearing 
a  litter.  No  matter  how  often  they  appeared,  I  could 
never  fail  to  turn  and  eye  them  out  of  sight,  wondering 
what  particular  mission  might  be  quickening  their  pace, 
and  very  much  inclined,  as  did  not  a  few,  doubtless,  in 
Savonarola's  time  on  witnessing  the  same  sight,  to  cry 
out,  *' Miserere  nobis,  Domine.'^  These  are  the  Brethren 
of  the  Misericordia,  and  they  alone  among  Christian 
brotherhoods  represent  the  conversion  of  a  band  of  im- 
pious and  dissolute  laborers  into  a  confraternity  of  re- 
ligious philanthropists,  whose  good  work  has  been  con- 
tinued for  six  centuries  and  more.^^  The  story  is  most 
interesting.  In  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century 
great  annual  fairs,  held  in  October  and  November,  re- 
quired large  numbers  of  porters  to  handle  the  woolen 
cloth  of  native  manufacture  which  was  offered  for  sale.^* 
While  looking  for  jobs  these  men  congregated  about  the 
Piazza  di  San  Giovanni,  and  bad  weather  found  them 
in  the  cellar  of  a  house  owned  by  the  Adimari  family. 
Their  spare  time  was  spent  in  the  usual  employments 
of  loafers;  drinking,  gambling,  story-telling,  and  blas- 
pheming being  the  principal  activities.  Into  this  com- 
pany came  in  1240  a  youth^^  who  had  been  brought  up, 
religiously,  and  who  was  shocked  by  what  he  saw  and 
especially  by  the  oaths  to  which  he  was  obliged  to  listen. 
Piero  di  Luca  Borsi  might  have  followed  the  course  of 

""These  Brothers  of  Mercy  in  their  mysterious  black  robes,  hiding 
their  faces,  are  familiar  enough  even  to  the  most  casual  visitor  to  Flor- 
ence; and  their  work  of  succor  to  the  sick  and  injured  has  gone  on  in- 
terruptedly throughout  the  whole  of  Florentine  history."  "The  Story 
of  Florence,"  Edmund  G.  Gardner,  p.  264. 

28  "The  cloth  that  had  been  either  manufactured  or  dressed  and  dyed 
in  Florence  had  obtained  a  great  reputation.  At  these  fairs,  which  were 
attended  by  the  richest  merchants  in  Italy,  an  enormous  business  was 
done,  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  goods  to  the  value  of  from  15,000,000 
to  16,000,000  flofins  were  sold  at  each.  The  delivery  of  the  cloth  sold 
required  the  services  of  a  large  number  of  porters."  "Florence,  Her 
History  and  Art,"  Francis  Adams  Hyett,  B.  A.,  p.  20. 

=»See  Staley,  "The  Guilds  of  Florence,"  p.  546.  Trollope  says  that 
Piero  was  an  elderly  man,  and  the  head  of  the  whole  gang.     Ut  infra. 

125 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

many  another  lad ;  sinking  to  the  level  of  his  surround- 
ings, he  inight  have  become  a  useless  degenerate.  On 
the  contrary,  he  determined  to  rebuke  the  iniquities  of 
his  associates  and,  better  still,  to  reform  them.  Not  con- 
tent with  mere  protests,  as  are  too  many  good  persons, 
he  suggested  methods  of  betterment.  Waxing  bold  one 
day,  he  approached  the  leaders  in  evil  and,  expostulat- 
ing with  them  for  their  conduct,  he  suggested  that  it 
would  be  a  good  idea  for  them  to  impose  on  themselves 
and  on  all  the  frequenters  of  the  locality  a  small  fine 
for  every  word  of  blasphemy  which  might  be  spoken. 
The  proposition  caught  the  fancy  of  the  ringleaders  of 
the  gang,  and  they  adopted  this  plan.^^  As  the  fines 
soon  amounted  to  a  considerable  sum,  Borsi  proposed 
that  the  porters  organize  themselves  into  a  humane  so- 
ciety to  expend  their  money  on  '*six  litters,  one  for  each 
ward  of  the  city,  and  to  appoint  every  week  two  of  their 
number  to  each  litter  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  poor 
sick  persons  to  the  hospitals,  or  those  who  met  with  sud- 
den accidents,  or  who  died  suddenly,  or  were  killed  in 
the  streets. '^^^  This  work  was  so  well  done  that  the  fra- 
ternity grew  and  became  popular.  Not  merely  market 
porters,  but  the  scions  of  wealthy  guildsmen  and  of 
nobles  gladly  took  the  habit  of  the  order  and  prosecuted 
its  undertakings.  During  the  Great  Plague  of  1348 
thirty-five  thousand  florins  were  contributed  to  the  work 
of  the  fraternity.  About  two  years  later  a  loggia  was 
planned,  the  famous  Bigallo  of  Andrea  Orcagna  with 
the  iron  grille  of  Francesco  Petrucci.  This  was  a  cen- 
ter where  brethren  might  rest  between  their  acts  of 
mercy,  and  where  strayed  or  deserted  children  might 
find  protection  until  cared  for,  this  work  carrying  for- 
ward the  Orfanotrofio  del  Bigallo  founded  a  century 

'"  The  fine  of  a  crazia,  equal  now  to  about  two-thirds  of  a  penny 
(English),  was  levied.     See  op.  cit.,  "Florence,"  Hyett,  p.  21,  et  nota  2. 

"  "History  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Florence,"  T.  Adolphus  Trollop©, 
Vol.  I,  p.  120. 

12fi 


BROTHERS  OF  PITY 

earlier.  The  members  who  bore  litters  served  in  rota- 
tion, a  bell  hung  in  the  loggia  calling  those  who  were 
at  duty  in  the  street  to  come  and  render  their  humani- 
tarian service.  Contribution-boxes  for  the  work  were 
placed  in  several  parts  of  the  city,  and  prayers  were 
said  daily  in  the  oratory.  In  1425  a  union  was  effected 
with  the  **Compagnia  del  Bigallo,'*  another  charitable 
society  on  similar  lines,  but  members  of  which  did  not 
wish  to  carry  the  sick.^^     j^  i^rj^  ^  ^^^^  ^^^  found 

with  no  one  to  bury  it.  A  passing  market-porter  car- 
ried it  to  the  Palazzo  Yecchio,  to  the  Gonfaloniere  di 
Giustizia,  and  the  affair  caused  the  Misericordia  to  sep- 
arate from  their  allies,  to  whom  in  1524  the  Bigallo 
was  surrendered,  the  present  location  of  the  Compagnia 
della  Misericordia  being  the  Piazza  del  Duomo.^^  Vaults 
under  the  cathedral,  granted  to  the  brothers  for  the 
burial  of  the  unfortunate,  still  bear  their  sculptured 
arms. 

Street  frays  in  Florence  no  longer  furnish  hourly 
subjects  of  mercy  to  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Misericor- 
dia, and  rough-handed  laborers  no  more  snatch  a  mo- 
ment from  their  day's  toil  to  act  the  part  of  Good  Sa- 
maritan. The  society  now  contains  representatives  of 
all  classes,  even  the  highest,  and  they  respond  to  the 
bell  not  only  to  bear  a  litter,  but  often  to  act  as  nurses. 
''The  dress,"  says  Mrs.  Oliphant,  *'is  in  reality  no 
sign  of  mysterious  shame  and  expiation,  but  merely  a 
precaution  against  any  trafficking  on  the  part  of  the 
brethren  in  the  gratitude  of  their  patients,  from  whom 


^This  society  arose  from  the  heretical  sect  of  the  '•Paterini,"  whq 
after  being  routed  and  scattered  by  the  Captains  of  Holy  Mary,  a  society 
of  young  cavaliers  who  organized  to  suppress  them,  became  hospitalers, 
and  in  their  work  of  repairing  old  asylums  and  hospitals,  were  joined 
by  many  from  the  lesser  guilds.  They  were  ultimately  given  a  chapel 
in  Santa  Maria  Novella  for  their  charities  and  devotions.  Guilds  ol 
Florence,"  Edgecumbe  Staley,  pp.  549,  550. 

83"Istoria  dell'    Oratorio  e  della  Venerabile  Arciconfratemit&  della 
Misericordia,   Scritta  da  Placido  Landani."     Also  "Florence  Gazette, 
March,  1898.    Staley,  ut  supra,  p.  545  ff. 

127 


CHRISTIAN  BEOTHERHOODS 

they  are  allowed  to  receive  nothing  more  than  a  draught 
of  water,  the  first  and  cheapest  of  necessities."^* 

A  passing  thought  may  be  given  here  to  The  Black 
Company,  **La  Compagnia  de'  Neri."  In  mediaeval 
times  all  criminals,  the  lesser  as  well  as  the  greater,  were 
most  harshly  treated,  and  no  provision  was  made  for 
their  physical  or  spiritual  wants,  save  as  the  tender  mer- 
cies of  the  jailers  might  elect.  In  1361  twelve  young 
men,  under  the  religious  spur  of  the  influence  of  the 
*'Paterini,"  asked  for  a  tract  of  waste  land  outside  the 
city  near  the  Piazza  di  Santa  Croce,  where  criminals 
were  executed.  On  this  field  they  built  a  chapel  where 
religious  ministry  might  be  given  to  those  about  to  be 
executed,  and  under  whose  walls  their  bodies  could  be 
buried.  The  number  of  this  society  increased  later  to 
fifty,  and  there  is  still  a  confraternity  at  Santa  Croce 
having  similar  purposes.^^ 

The  Jesuati,  or  jesuates,  date  from  the  fourteenth 
century,  being  the  result  of  a  foundation  made  by  John 
Colombini,  a  native  of  Siena.  This  man,  who  had  sev- 
eral times  been  elected  Gonfaloniero,^^  who  was  very 
successful  in  business  and  very  worldly-minded,  became 
fascinated  with  the  lives  of  the  saints,  particularly  by 
chancing  to  take  up  a  biography  of  St.  Mary  of  Egypt. 
His  temper  became  changed  from  ambition  and  anger 
to  humility  and  meekness.  He  reformed  his  business 
methods,  selling  cheaply  and  paying  larger  prices  than 
were  demanded.  He  made  his  house  a  refuge  for  the 
poor  and  needy,  washing  the  feet  of  the  suffering,  min- 
istering with  his  own  hands  to  their  wants  and  offering 

""Makers  of  Florence,"  Oliphant,  p.  233.  "The  porter's  original 
undertaking  is  carried  out  with  a  firm  faithfulness  at  once  to  tradition 
and  to  Christian  charity." 

"^  Staley,  op.  cit.,  p.  514. 

"Alzog  says  he  resigned  the  highest  office  to  minister  to  th«  poor, 
"Universal  Church  History,"  Pabisch  and  Byrne,  Per.  2,  Ep.  2,  Pt.  2, 
chap,  iv,  §291.  The  same  statement  is  made  by  Langton  Douglas,  "His- 
tory of  Siena,"  p.  164. 

128 


BROTHERS  OF  PITY 

to  them  spiritual  comfort.  After  a  time,  his  wife  hav- 
ing become  converted  to  his  views,  Colombini  provided 
for  her  a  life  annuity,  and  then  gave  the  rest  of  his 
fortune  to  endow  a  hospital  and  two  cloisters."  After- 
ward he  lived  in  apostolic  simplicity  and  poverty,  con- 
tinuing his  services  to  sick  and  poor,  and  being  joined 
by  his  old  friend  Francisco  Mini,  three  of  the  Picolo- 
mini  family,  and  by  other  patricians  who  likewise  dis- 
tributed their  substance  to  the  needy.  A  cry  of  alarm 
at  such  practices  being  raised,  Colombini  was  banished 
from  Siena,  and  his  comrades  **Poveri  Gesuati," 
Ejiights  of  Jesus  Christ,  cheerfully  followed  him  and 
made  a  tour  of  Tuscany,  arousing  much  interest. 
Shortly  after  these  men  left  Siena  an  epidemic  broke 
out  in  that  city,  which  was  regarded  by  many  as  a  di- 
vine rebuke  upon  those  who  had  exiled  Colombini,  and 
they  clamored  for  his  recall.  On  his  return  the  good 
man  resumed  his  deeds  of  kindness  and  of  self-denial, 
going  so  far  as  to  render  the  most  humble  services  in 
homes  where  he  had  once  been  lavishly  entertained. 
The  new  congregation  was  sanctioned  in  1379  by  Pope 
Urban  Y.  The  members  were  called  Jesuates  by  the 
people  of  Viterbo  because  they  constantly  were  heard 
to  exclaim,  ** Praise  be  to  Jesus  Christ."  From  their 
veneration  of  St.  Jerome  came  the  more  formal  title 
Clerici  Apostolici  s.  Hieronymi.  In  1606  priests  were 
admitted  to  the  society,  but  in  spite  of  their  influence, 
or  because  of  it,  abuses  crept  in,  and  the  congregation 
was  suppressed  in  1668,  having,  however,  in  its  three 
centuries,  assuaged  many  griefs,  and  having  brought 
no  little  joy  to  the  plague-stricken  and  the  distressed. 

"  "Straightway  he  divested  himself  of  his  wealth — chiefly  like  a  good 
Sienese,  in  favor  of  the  hospital  of  the  Scala — espoused  the  Lady  Pov- 
erty, and  wandered  through  the  streets  and  lanes,  perpetually  praising 
God.  Some  of  the  lauds  which  he  and  his  followers  sang  have  come  down 
to  us  under  the  name  of  rime  spirituali,  and  are  if  monotonous  in  matter, 
still  tremulous  with  the  joy  of  the  convert."  "Siena,"  Ferdinana 
Schevill,  p.   256. 

9  129 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

At  the  time  of  the  so-called  *' black  death  "^^  at  Mech- 
lin in  Brabant,  a  number  of  laymen  joined  themselves 
to  a  certain  Tobias,  who  desired  to  minister  to  the  suf- 
ferers. They  took  no  vows  or  special  rule.  As  one  of 
their  works  of  necessity  was  to  bury  those  who  died 
of  the  dread  disease,  they  became  known  as  Cellites, 
from  the  Latin  cella,  a  cell,  and  so  a  grave.  After  some 
time  they  became  enamored  of  Alexius,  who  had  for 
many  years  labored  in  a  hospital  at  Edessa,  Syria.  In 
devotion  to  this  man,  whom  they  regarded  as  a  saint, 
they  assumed  the  style  of  Alexian  Brothers,  and  they 
spread  rapidly  in  Germany  and  the  low  countries.  Like 
some  of  the  other  orders  named  in  this  chapter,  the 
Alexians  visited  not  only  the  sick,  but  prisoners,  and 
they  attended  criminals  to  execution.  By  some  they  are 
described  as  being  descended  from  Wycliffe's  LuUards, 
or  Lollards,  or  as  a  branch  of  the  Beghards.  They 
were  sometimes  called  LoUhorden,  from  the  old  Ger- 
man word  to  sing  softly,  which  they  did  at  funerals  and 
elsewhere.  If  they  were  ever  connected  with  the  sects 
regarded  as  heretical,  they  were  later  recovered  to  alle- 
giance to  the  Church.  They  were  admitted  among  the 
religious  orders  by  Sixtus  IV  in  1472,  and  Gregory  XI 
defended  them  from  their  enemies.  The  Alexian 
Brothers  have  hospitals  in  the  United  States,  homes  for 
the  aged  and  infirm  in  England,  retreats  for  the  insane 
in  America,  Germany,  and  Belgium,  besides  other  mod- 
ern establishments.^^ 

John  of  God,  a  Portuguese  youth  born  in  1495,  and 
who  ran  away  from  home  in  his  ninth  year,  thereby 
hastening,  if  not  causing,  the  death  of  his  mother,  had 
many  adventures  as  a  shepherd,  a  soldier,  and  a  servant 

'^The  Black  Death  desolated  both  Asia  and  Europe  during  the  14th 
Century,  carrying  off  30,000,000  Europeans,  and  half  of  the  4,000,000 
population  of  England  were  also  swept  away.  "Historic  Note-Book," 
Brewer. 

"  See  "History  of  the  Alexian  Brothers,"  Chicago,  and  "Monastic  and 
Religious  Houses  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  Steele. 

130 


BROTHERS  OF  PITY 

to  charity.  Returning  from  Africa,  he  sold  religious 
books  and  pictures  at  cost  in  the  region  about  Gibraltar, 
where  he  is  also  said  to  have  had  a  vision  of  the  Infant 
Jesus,  from  whom  he  received  the  name  by  which  he 
is  now  known,  and  who  bade  him  go  to  Granada.  At 
the  latter  place  in  his  fortieth  year  John  of  Avila  so 
preached  as  to  lead  him  to  give  away  all  his  worldly 
goods  and  to  go  through  the  streets  of  the  city  beating 
his  breast  and  crying  for  mercy.  At  first  regarded  as 
a  madman,  he  became  an  approved  minister  to  the  poor 
and  sick,  for  whom  he  rented  a  house  to  which  he  bore 
on  his  own  shoulders  any  who  were  unable  to  walk. 
For  a  time  alone  in  his  charities  he  began  to  receive  aid. 
Two  dissipated  men  who  were  sworn  enemies  of  each 
other  were  converted  by  the  influence  of  John,  and  they 
with  him  began,  in  1540,  a  congregation  which  became 
numerous  and  over  which  one  of  the  two  converts,  who 
humbly  called  himself  Peter  the  Sinner,  came  to  pre- 
side after  the  death  of  his  master  and  by  his  appoint- 
ment. John  passed  away  in  1550,  his  last  illness  being 
caused  by  a  futile  attempt  to  rescue  a  young  man  from 
drowning.  The  new  order,  which  was  approved  by 
Pius  V  in  1572  under  the  rule  of  Augustine,  rendered 
service  to  widows  and  orphans,  to  the  unemployed,  to 
poor  students,  and  to  fallen  women.  All  comers  were 
cared  for,  Catholics  and  non-Catholics,  '*  their  consti- 
tution obliging  them  to  make  no  distinction.*****  The 
Brothers  Hospitalers  of  St.  John  of  God  increased  in 
number  and  spread  rapidly  through  Europe.  A  hospital 
given  them  in  Rome  became  the  center  of  government. 
During  the  French  Revolution  the  brothers  were  expelled 
from  forty  hospitals  where  they  were  caring  for  over 
four  thousand  patients.  The  order  is  represented  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  by  about  one  hundred  institutions, 
and  it  has  a  hospice  at  Nazareth,  a  home  for  insane  men 

"Alzog,  Vol.  ni,  p.  396. 

131 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

in  Ireland,  and  a  retreat  for  male  chronic  invalids  in 
Yorkshire.  The  members  do  not  take  holy  orders,  but 
receive  priests  as  helpers.  Some  of  them  are  graduates 
in  medicine  and  other  sciences.  They  seek  sanctification 
and  the  welfare  of  their  patients.  To  the  three  mo- 
nastic vows  they  add  that  of  serving  for  life  the  sick 
in  their  hospitals.  At  various  times  and  places  the 
order  has  borne  differing  titles:  in  Spain,  Brothers  of 
Hospitality;  in  France,  Brethren  of  Christian  Love;  in 
Germany,  Brethren  of  Mercy .^^ 

Among  the  interesting  societies  which  sprang  up  in 
the  period  through  which  our  thought  is  passing  was  a 
congregation  of  men  who  were  at  once  priests  and  phjr- 
sicians.  They  arose  in  Turkey  and  were  called  *' Fathers 
of  the  Pestilence."  The  Fraternity  of  the  Holy  Trinity 
was  the  earlier  work,  1548,  of  Philip  Neri  of  the  Oratory, 
a  man  of  great  devotion  to  the  sick  and  poor,  and  who 
established  this  society  and  the  finest  hospice  in  Rome 
for  the  sake  of  needy  sufferers  and  pilgrims.*^  The 
Bethlehemites,  a  third  order  of  this  name,*^  sprang 
from  the  labors  of  Pierre  de  Betencourt,  born  in  Ten- 
eriffe,  Canary  Islands,  in  1619,  an  ascetic  from  youth, 
who  failed  in  his  Jesuitical  studies  and  became  a  tailor, 
and  later  a  sexton.  In  1655  he  sold  his  possessions  for 
the  benefit  of  the  poor,  entered  the  third  Franciscan 
order,  and  founded  a  free  school  for  indigent  pupils. 
Soon  he  established  a  hospital  and  other  schools,  and 
about  1660  he  began  to  receive  associates  in  his  work 
in  these  institutions  at  Gautemala.  His  new  order  was 
endorsed,  and  in  1687  was  placed  under  the  Augustinian 
rule.     Its  present  work  is  primarily  charitable. 

**  "The  Age  of  the  Reformation,"  M.  Philippson,  Ph.D.,  says,  "The 
Brethren  of  Mercy,  by  their  modest  virtues  and  by  tne  unwearying  serv- 
ices rendered  by  them  to  the  suffering  and  the  forsaken,  have  done  more 
for  the  upholding  of  Catholicism  than  a  hundred  bishops  or  doctors  of 
theology."      "Plist.  All  Nations,"  Vol.  XI,  p.  238. 

*2Reiching,  "Leben  des  heiligen  Philippe  de*  Neri." 

«  Supra,  p.  71. 

132 


BROTHERS  OF  PITY 

"While  the  number  which  have  been  specifically  consid- 
ered in  these  pages  comprises  not  more  than  a  represent- 
ative proportion  of  the  charitable  brotheihoods  which 
arose  and  flourished  from  early  mediaeval  to  Reformation 
times,  no  doubt  the  greatest  orders  and  those  most  typ- 
ical have  been  named.  A  full  study  of  these  societies 
would  go  far  towards  proving  the  claim  of  Professor 
J.  A.  Ryan  that  **in  the  Ages  (t£  Faith  the  Church  was 
able  to  create  an  institution  for  every  social  need.'*** 
As  to  the  value  of  such  relief,  it  must  be  confessed  that 
there  has  been  wide  difference  of  opinion,**^  but  when 
one  takes  into  consideration  the  supplementary  influence 
of  the  Church  upon  social  and  political  conditions,  much 
credit  must  certainly  be  given  to  organized  Christianity. 
That  usury  was  condemned,  that  such  institutions  as 
the  Franciscan  Montes  Pietatis  were  established  for 
the  protection  of  borrowers,  that  the  misuse  of  secular 
power  was  denounced  and  resisted,  and  that  great  houses 
of  shelter  for  the  sick  and  poor  were  erected,  certainly 
meant  much  during  chaotic  centuries;  and  as  to  alms- 
giving, whatever  one  may  think  of  systems  and  general 
principles,  the  offering  to  the  needy  of  even  a  cup  of 
cold  water  in  the  name  of  the  LOrd,  if  the  act  be  sincere 
and  self-denying,  is  Christian  and  beautiful.    Each  deed 

**  "Catholic  Encycl.,"  article  "Charity." 

«0.  A.  Ellwood,  Ph.D.,  in  "Henderson's  .Modern  Methods  of  Char- 
ity," p.  167,  is  most  sweeping:  "The  charity  of  the  Church  was  wholly 
indiscriminating  and,  therefore,  «vil  in  its  consequences."  Lecky,  "Hist. 
European  Morals,"  Vol.  II,  p.  99,  who  is  quoted  in  the  "Catholic  Dic- 
tionary," article  "Charity,"  as  saying  that  "in  the  sphere  of  simple 
poverty  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  Catholic  Church  has  created 
more  misery  than  it  has  cured,"  really  strongly  commends  the  earlier 
charity  of  the  Church,  saying  that  it  was  "at  first  la  very  great,  though 
even  then  not  an  unmixed  good."  "A  form  of  selfish  charity,"  he  says, 
"arose,  which  acquired  at  last  gigantic  proportions,  and  exercised  a  most 
pernicious  influence  upon  Christendom.  Men  gave  money  to  th«  poor 
simply  and  exclusively  for  their  own  spiritual  benefit."  If  this  has  been 
done,  if  penance  and  personal  profit  therefrom  have  replaced  the  love  of 
humanity,  then  evil  has  been  wrought,  if  not  to  the  recipient,  certainly 
to  the  donor  of  charity.  No  doubt,  also,  all  unnecessary  alms  pauperizes 
the  object  of  giving.  But  with  all  these  strictures  there  remains  a  con- 
siderable balance  on  the  side  of  the  Church,  but  especially  to  the  credit 
of  the  brotherhoods  in  their  better  days. 

133 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

inspired  by  affection  and  culminating  in  self-denial  is 
also  too  evidently  profitable  not  to  be  virtuous. 

**  It  is  in  loving,  not  in  being  loved,  the  heart  is  blest; 
It  is  in  giving,  not  in  seeking  gifts,  we  find  our  quest." 

I  will  close  this  chapter  with  a  reference  to  an  order 
which  grew  out  of  the  spirit  of  practical  helpfulness 
exhibited  by  a  devout  soul  of  the  period  just  covered. 
The  Confraternity  of  St.  Ives,  established  to  give  legal 
advice  to  those  not  able  to  provide  for  themselves,  re- 
calls the  name  of  one  St.  Evona,  or  Ives  (Yves),  of 
Brittany,  born  at  Kermartin,  1253,  and  who  died  at 
Louannec  in  1303.  He  was  son  of  Helori,  Lord  of  Ker- 
martin, and  was  educated  for  the  law  at  Paris.  He 
became  a  judge  ecclesiastical  at  Rennes,  and,  having 
studied  well  the  Scriptures,  he  devoted  his  life  to  the 
service  of  the  poor,  becoming  renowned  for  his  good 
deeds*^  and  reflecting  such  honor  upon  both  the  legal 
and  Christian  professions  that  he  was  held  as  patron 
by  the  one  and  was  canonized  by  the  other.*^ 

A  very  amusing  account  of  the  way  in  which  this 
interesting  character  became  the  Lawyer's  Patron  Saint 
is  found  in  ** Curiosities  of  Law  and  Lawyers."**  *'St. 
Evona,  or  Ives,  of  Brittany  was  lamenting  that  his  pro- 
fession had  not  a  patron  saint  to  look  up  to.  The  phy- 
sicians had  St.  Luke,  the  champions  had  St.  George, 
the  artists  each  had  one;  but  the  lawyers  had  none. 
Thinking  that  the  pope  ought  to  bestow  a  saint,  he  went 
to  Rome  and  requested  his  holiness  to  give  the  lawyers 
of  Brittany  a  patron.  The  pope,  rather  puzzled,  pro- 
posed to  St.  Evona  that  he  should  go  round  the  Church 

**  "Le  devouement  avec  lequel  il  plaidait  les  causes  des  veuves  et  des 
inalheur«ux  lui  merita  le  surnom  honarable  d'Avocat  des  pauvres." 
"Dictionnaire  Universel,"    P.   Larousse. 

*' "Two  members  of  that  order  (the  noblesse  de  la  robe)  attained 
each  a  rare  distinction :  the  one,  Ives  de  Kaermartin,  who  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Philip  the  Fair,  being  canonized  as  a  saint."  *'The  History  of 
Lawyers,"  Wm.  Forsyth,  p.  190. 

**By  Oroake  (I),  James,  pp.  1  and  2. 

134 


BROTHERS  OF  PITY 

of  St.  John  de  Lateran  blindfolded,  and  after  he  had 
said  so  many  Ave  Marias  the  first  saint  he  laid  hold  of 
should  be  his  patron ;  and  this  solution  of  the  difficulty 
the  good  old  lawyer  willingly  undertook.  When  he 
had  finished  his  Ave  Marias  he  stopped  short  and  laid 
his  hands  on  the  first  image  he  came  to,  and  cried  out 
with  joy,  *This  is  our  saint;  this  be  our  patron.'  But 
when  the  bandage  was  taken  from  his  eyes,  what  was 
his  astonishment  to  find  that,  though  he  had  stopped 
at  St.  Michael's  altar,  he  had  all  the  while  laid  hold 
not  of  St.  Michael,  but  of  the  figure  under  St.  Michael's 
feet — the  devil! 

**This  St.  Evona  of  Brittany,  it  is  said  in  Carr's  ac- 
count of  the  Netherlands,  1684,  was  so  dejected  at  the 
choice  of  a  patron  saint  that  in  a  few  months  he  died, 
and,  coming  to  heaven's  gates,  knocked  hard.  Where- 
upon St.  Peter  asked  who  it  was  that  knocked  so  boldly. 
He  replied  that  it  was  St.  Evona  the  advocate.  *Away, 
away!'  said  St.  Peter;  *here  is  but  one  advocate  in 
heaven;  here  is  no  room  for  you  lawyers.'  'Oh,  but,' 
said  St.  Evona,  *I  am  that  honest  lawyer  who  never 
took  fees  on  both  sides,  nor  pleaded  in  a  bad  cause; 
nor  did  I  ever  set  my  neighbors  together  by  the  ears, 
nor  lived  by  the  sins  of  the  people.'  *Well,  then,'  said 
St.  Peter,  'come  in!'  He  became  the  patron  saint  him- 
self." 

But  it  has  been  said  with  reference  to  St.  Ives,  "He 
is  the  patron  of  lawyers,  though  not,  it  is  said,  their 
model,  for  'Sanctus  Ivo  erat  Brito,  Advocatus  et  non 
latro,  Bes  miranda  populo.'  " 


135 


X 

AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

PIOUS  AND  PREACfflNG  BROTHERHOODS 

The  counter-reformation  produced  modified  or  new 
types  of  monastic  and  lay  brotherhoods,  as  outlined  in 
this  and  in  the  succeeding  chapter.  In  general  three 
tendencies  appear,  the  revival  of  austerity,  the  organi- 
zation of  propagandist  societies,  and  the  rise  and  de- 
velopment of  educational  orders.  The  cause  of  this 
movement  is  easily  explicable  on  the  basis  of  the  new 
ecclesiastical  division,  with  its  competitions  in  doctrine 
and  in  practical  interests,  the  whole  situation  being  com- 
plicated by  social  and  political  conditions.^ 

Asceticism  has  always  been  associated  with  religion, 
and  especially  with  monastic  institutions,  perfectionist 
aspirations  and  endeavors  underlying  its  intellectual 
struggles  and  its  physical  mortifications.  From  the  be- 
ginning of  the  study  of  Christian  brotherhoods  it  has 
appeared  that  one  of  the  great  ends  of  these  societies 
as  a  whole,  but  particularly  of  those  whose  aims  were 
chiefly  religious,  was  the  attainment  of  a  strict  rule  of 

*  Mosheim  says  that  the  Reformation,  among  other  changes,  even  in 
the  Roman  Church,  "gave  rise  to  various  communities,  which  were  all 
comprehended  under  the  general  denomination  of  Regular  Clerks  (Cler- 
ics);  and  as  all  these  communities  were,  according  to  their  own  solemn 
declarations,  formed  with  a  design  of  imitating  that  sanctity  of  manners, 
and  reviving  that  spirit  of  piety  and  virtue  which  had  distinguished  the 
sacred  order  in  the  primitive  times,  this  was  a  plain  though  tacit  con- 
fession of  the  present  corruption  of  the  clergy,  and  consequently  of  the 
indispensable  necessity  of  the  Reformation."  "Ecclesiastical  History," 
Section  III,  part  1,  xvii.  S.  Cheetham,  "A  History  of  the  Christian 
Church  Since  the  Reformation,"  p.  93,  says,  "In  nothing  did  the  C?hurch 
of  Rome  display  better  the  fresh  life  which  she  had  derived  from  the 
Reformation  than  in  the  »ew  orders  which  she  brought  forth  during  the 
seventeenth  century." 

136 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

moral  thought  and  life.  Each  of  the  great  orders  has 
established  its  discipline  for  the  attainment  of  high  and 
meritorious  character,  and  the  reform  movements  which 
have  been  traced  were  inaugurated  either  to  improve 
the  rule  or  to  correct  its  relaxations.  Besides  the  me- 
diagval  foundations  primarily  devoted  to  piety  which 
have  already  been  named,  attention  may  be  called  to  a 
number  of  those  which  were  smaller,  more  intense,  or 
radical. 

St.  Romuald^  in  1012  established  at  Campo  Maldoli, 
thirty  miles  east  of  Florence,  the  Camaldoli,  Ordo  Ca- 
maldulanus,  a  modification  of  the  Benedictine  rule,  and 
not  always  classed  separately.  Romuald  was  the  son 
of  a  nobleman  of  Ravenna,  and  after  a  vain  and  frivo- 
lous youth  he  was  deeply  impressed  by  the  horror  of  a 
duel  which  he  was  compelled  to  witness  and  in  which 
his  father,  Sergius,  killed  a  neighbor.  To  atone  for 
his  unwilling  share  in  this  event  young  Romuald  re- 
tired from  the  world  to  live  a  life  of  austerity.  For  a 
time  he  was  under  the  tuition  of  the  famous  hermit 
Peter  Urseoli.  His  religious  development  was  rapid 
and  intense,  and  he  became  influential  in  convicting 
men  of  their  sins.^  The  reigning  Doge  of  Venice  was 
by  his  rebukes  brought  to  repentance  for  his  crimes,  and 
later  the  Emperor  Otho  was  induced  to  make  a  barefoot 
pilgrimage  from  Rome  to  Gorganus  to  atone  for  his 
murder  of  Crescentius.  His  own  father,  Sergius,  who 
had  entered  a  monastery,  finding  the  quiet  regular  life 
little  to  his  taste,  was  minded  to  return  to  the  pleasures 
of  the  world,  but  the  arguments  of  Romuald  prevailed 
upon  him  to  remain  in  the  institution  till  death.  The 
members  of  Camaldoli  wore  a  white  habit,  were  obliged 

*A  biographer  is  Peter  Damien,   "Life  of  Romuald." 
8'*So  irresistible  was  his  speech,   and  so  subduing  his  glance,   that 
the  most  abandoned  and  obstinate  of  them,  when  appealed  to  by  him,  at 
once  entered  upon  a  change  of  life,  and  the  most  tepid  grew  active  and 
energetic."     Alzog,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  p.  364. 

137 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOOD^ 

to  observe  two  Lenten  fasts  each  year,  at  other  times 
to  abstain  from  meat,  and  to  live  at  least  three  days 
each  week  on  bread  and  water.  Corruption  did  not, 
however,  pass  by  this  severe  order,  and  in  its  later  his- 
tory it  was  several  times  reformed.  In  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  there  were  some  two  thousand 
members,  but  few  now  remain.  The  Order  of  Yallom- 
brosa  (shady  valley),  founded  about  1038  by  San  Gio- 
vanni Gualberto,  was  also  a  Benedictine  institution 
which  was  strictly  contemplative  and  which  admitted 
lay  brethren.  Milton,  in  his  well-known  passage,  speaks 
of  angel  forms  who 

"  lay  entranced 
Thick  as  autumnal  leaves  that  strew  the  brooks 
In  Vallombrosa,  where  the  Etrurian  shades 
High  over-arch'd  imbow'r."  * 

Several  orders  of  Boni  Homines^  have  existed,  th^ 
oldest  of  the  Good  Men  being  probably  the  Order  of 
Grandmont,  founded  in  the  mountains  of  Muret,  near 
Limoges,  France,  Martene  says,  in  1100,  by  Stephen  of 
Thiers.  This  ascetic  wore  a  penitent's  shirt  of  steel 
and  slept  in  a  coffin.  He  was  followed  by  many  dis- 
ciples, over  whom  he  would  not  rule  as  prior  or  abbot, 
but  assumed  only  the  title  corrector.  **When  you  are 
asked  to  what  order  you  belong,"  said  St.  Stephen  to 
his  disciples,  ** answer,  'to  Christianity,  which  is  the 
mother  and  model  of  all  the  other  orders.'  "  The  hu- 
mility of  this  man  is  indicated  in  his  reply  to  some 
cardinals  who  asked  him  whether  he  considered  himself 
a  canon,  a  monk,  or  a  hermit.  *'I  am  none  of  these," 
he  said;  and  being  questioned  further  concerning  the 
status  of  himself  and  of  his  fellows,  he  said:  *'We  are 
poor  sinners  whom  God  has  mercifully  called  to  the 

*  "Paradise  Lost,"  Book  I,  301-304. 

"  Grandmont,  the  Minims  in  France,  the  Portuguese  Canons  of  Vi- 
oenza  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  an  English  order  in  London  about 
1300. 

138 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

■wilderness  to  do  penance;  and  the  pope,  in  compliance 
with  our  request,  has  himself  appointed  the  duties  we 
fulfill  here.  "We  are  too  imperfect  and  too  wea^  to 
emulate  the  example  of  the  saint  hermits  who  were  so 
absorbed  in  their  divine  contemplations  as  to  make  them 
forget  the  natural  wants  of  the  body.  You  see  besides, 
that  we  do  not  wear  the  habit  either  of  canons  or  of 
monks;  and  we  do  not  desire  to  be  called  either,  as  we 
are  far  from  having  the  merits  of  the  one  or  the  sanctity 
of  the  others."  The  name  Boni  Homines  is  a  standing 
evidence  of  the  fact  that  St.  Stephen's  speech  was  too 
modest  to  be  true,  for  the  people  held  his  followers  in 
higher  respect  than  that  accorded  the  regular  monastics, 
and  they  gave  them  this  title.  The  later  history  of 
Grandmont  seems  to  show  that  too  much  obedience  char- 
acterized its  members,  for  they  permitted  the  pope  to 
relax  their  rules ;  contentions  arose,  and  the  order,  which 
was  confined  to  France,  was  extinguished  by  the  Revo- 
lution.* 

Fontevraud,  the  foundation  of  Robert  of  Arbrissel, 
about  the  year  1100,  too  closely  associated  its  members, 
and  though  Robert  was  zealously  active  in  reforming 
the  clergy  and  in  the  preaching  of  penance  and  the 
crusade,  he  became  involved  in  a  scandal  with  reference 
to  his  relations  with  women.  Nevertheless  the  order 
later  attained  much  prosperity  in  France  as  an  insti- 
tution of  discipline.^  The  Humiliati,  or  the  Humbled, 
an  order  at  first  composed  of  laymen,  was  instituted 
about  1134  by  some  Italian  noblemen  whom  Henry  II 
had  sent  to  Germany  as  exiles.  On  the  return  of  these 
Milanese  to  their  native  city  they  continued  the  form 
of  religious  exercises  which  they  had  perforce  employed 
abroad,    and,    strengthening    themselves   by    accessions 

•  The  statutes  of  the  order  are  in  Martene,  De  antiq.  eccl.  rit.  Alzog, 
op.  cit.  Vol.  II,  p.  689,  attributes  the  failure  to  the  conflict  between 
monks  and  lay-brothers,  due  to  excessive  wealth. 

*MoeIler,  op.  cit.,  pp.  350  and  351. 

139 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

from  the  meclianic  classes  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  woolen  fabrics,  they  formed  groups  throughout  Lom- 
bard/. Each  member  worked  for  the  society,  which  in 
turn  provided  for  all.  Manual  labor  was  required,  and 
combined  industry  and  integrity  gained  for  these 
brothers  a  good  name  and  sometimes  high  honor  and 
office.  About  1151  the  members  became  Benedictine 
canons,  and  they  received  the  approval  of  the  Church 
in  1200.  In  later  times  political  intrigue  and  temporal 
sordidness  polluted  the  order,  and  when  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  sought  to  reform  them  his  murder  was  at- 
tempted. In  1571  the  Humiliati  were  suppressed.^  The 
Confraternity  of  Notre  Dame,  whose  object  was  the  per- 
fection of  the  spiritual  life,  was  founded  at  Paris,  1168. 
Thirty-six  priests  and  thirty-six  laymen,  representing 
the  number  of  Christ's  disciples,  constituted  the  insti- 
tution. 

Diverse  origins  are  attributed  to  the  Brethren  of  the 
Sack,  whose  real  name  is  said  to  have  been  Friars  or 
Brethren  of  Penance,  and  who  were  represented  in 
France,  in  Spain,  in  Germany,  in  England  during  the 
reign  of  Henry  III,  and  in  Italy.  They  have  been  con- 
sidered as  being  associated  with  the  Boni  Homines  or 
Perf  ecti,  or  with  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit.  Their 
name  was  derived  from  the  sacks  which  they  wore  as 
garments.  Their  austerity  and  abstinence  were  extreme, 
and  their  views  were  those  of  radicals,  leading  to  exter- 
mination after  a  comparatively  brief  period.  The 
Crutched  or  Crossed  Friars  were  a  congregation  of 
Canons  regularly  founded  in  1211  by  Theodore  de  Celles 
at  Huy,  near  Liege,  and  who  followed  the  rule  of  Augus- 
tine as  modified  by  Dominican  influences.     The  Crosier 

8  See  Hurter,  Vol.  IV. 

"  Gasquet,  "English  Monastic  Life,"  pp.  241  and  242,  says  that  in 
spite  of  the  suppression  by  Gregory  X  of  all  begging  friars  except  the 
four  great  mendicant  orders,  the  Fratres  de  Sacco  remained  in  existence 
in  England  until  the  destruction  of  all  the  orders  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

140 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

Fathers  to  this  day  are  engaged  in  a  life  both  contem- 
plative and  active.  They  give  missions,  conduct  re- 
treats, assist  the  secular  clergy,  if  desired  to  do  so,  and 
educate  young  men  for  the  priesthood.  The  chief  pro- 
fession is  interior  and  exterior  self-denial,  in  order  to 
imitate  the  crucified  Savior.  While  once  numerous  in 
England,  they  are  now  reduced,  the  principal  houses  be- 
ing in  Holland  and  Belgium.  The  same  name  is  often 
applied  to  an  earlier  Order  of  the  Holy  Cross,  mentioned 
in  the  previous  chapter.^^  The  Caesarians  were  not  a 
separate  order,  but  were  followers  of  a  Franciscan, 
Caesar  of  Spires,  a  German  friar  who  about  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  opposed  the  attempted  relaxa- 
tion of  the  rules  of  St.  Francis. 

To  a  decree  of  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  1274  is  at- 
tributed the  origin  of  the  Holy  Name  Society,  the 
preaching  of  devotion  to  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus  being 
entrusted  to  the  Dominicans.  Peter  Martyr,  Ambrose 
of  Siena,  and  Henry  Suso  were  distinguished  apostles 
of  this  devotion.  Didacus  of  Victoria,  who  died  in  1450, 
formed  a  confraternity  known  as  the  Society  of  the 
Holy  Name  of  God,  for  the  suppression  of  *  *  the  horrible 
profanation  of  the  Divine  Name  by  blasphemers,  per- 
jurers, and  by  men  in  their  ordinary  conversation." 
Later  this  confraternity  was  merged  into  the  Society 
of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus,  called  also  Confraternity 
against  Oaths.  The  society  received  a  great  impetus 
in  the  United  States  in  the  nineteenth  century,  where 
its  members  protested  against  profanity  by  their  yearly 
processions,  by  quarterly  communions,  and  by  the  pub- 
lication of  the  monthly  Holy  Name  Journal}^ 

The  Celestinians  were  founded  by  the  good  Peter 

"Gasquet,  op.  cit.,  p.  246,  For  account  of  Crossed  Friars,  see 
Hermans  "Annales  Can.  Reg.  S.  Aug.  Ordinis  Sanctae  Crucis."  Also 
the  work  of  Russel. 

"See  "Pocket  Manual  of  the  Holy  Name  Society"  and  * 'Annual  Ee- 
ports  of  Archdiocesan  Union,"  Holy  Name  Society  of  New  York. 

141 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

of  Morone  before  his  elevation  to  the  papacy  as  Celes- 
tine  V,  in  1294.^^  Their  rule  was  Benedictine,  and  re- 
quired them  to  eat  no  flesh  except  in  case  of  sickness, 
to  fast  much,  and  to  rise  two  hours  after  midnight  to 
say  matins.  They  were  devoted  entirely  to  contempla- 
tion, and  the  order,  which  at  one  time  had  two  hundred 
monasteries,  though  much  decayed,  has  some  modem 
survivors.  A  strict  branch  of  Franciscans,  the  Celes- 
tinian  Hermits,  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  their 
Benedictine  namesakes.  The  Hermits  were  often  caUed 
Fratricelli,  or  little  brothers,  as  were  various  sects  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  From  Celestine  V  they  obtained  per- 
mission to  live  in  solitude  and  to  observe  the  utmost 
rigor  of  the  Franciscan  rule.  The  more  ascetic  and 
radical  monks  gathered  to  their  standard.  They  were 
opposed  by  the  regular  Franciscans  and  soon  became 
subject  to  the  Inquisition,  which  executed  most  barbar- 
ously the  commission  against  them  issued  by  John  XXII. 
Later  they  adopted  the  views  of  Oliva,  holding  the 
Roman  Church  to  be  Babylon,  and  that  the  rule  of  St. 
Francis  was  observed  by  Jesus  and  the  apostles.  They 
prophesied  the  reformation  of  the  Church  and  the  res- 
toration of  the  true  gospel  of  Christ.  They  declared 
that  a  new  gospel  was  also  to  come.  It  is  said  that 
from  1318  to  the  time  of  Innocent  VI  over  two  thou- 
sand persons  were  burnt  by  the  Inquisition,  but  the 
Celestinians  survived  to  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  Brigittines,  or  Order  of  the  Savior,  1346,  were 
founded  by  St.  Bridget,  the  daughter  of  a  Swedish 
prince,  and  their  devotion  has  to  the  present  time  been 
given  to  the  passion  of  the  Lord.  The  houses  were 
originally  for  both  men  and  women.^^    They  were  sup- 

^This  pious  man,  who  was  forced  to  be  made  pope,  proved  to  be  no 
politician,  and  he  was  compelled  to  abdicate  by  Boniface,  who  succeeded 
him,  and  who  imprisoned  and  persecuted  him  until  hia  death.  See  "Cath- 
olic Encyclopedia,"  in  loco. 

"  •  'Catholic  Encyclopedia'  *  in  loco  says,  '  *  At  the  Reformation  most 
of  the  double  monasteries  had  to  be  given  up." 

142 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

pressed  in  England  by  Henry  VIII,  and  in  Sweden  by 
Gustavns  Vasa.  Several  orders  of  Hieronymites,  Jero- 
nymites,  followers  of  St.  Jerome,  carried  the  ascetic 
idea  through  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  but 
these  hermits  have  no  successors.^*  The  Wliite  Brethren, 
organized  in  the  Alps  about  1399  by  an  unknown  en- 
thusiast, said  to  have  been  from  Scotland,  were  called 
penitents  by  their  leader,  but  were  named  by  others 
Fratres  Albati,  because  of  their  white  dresses.  The 
leader  of  the  White  Penitents,  as  they  were  also  some- 
times termed,  was  suspected  of  false  designs,  and,  be- 
ing arrested  at  the  instigation  of  Boniface  IX,  was 
burnt,  and  his  followers  soon  dispersed.^^ 

The  influence  of  "Wyckliffe  flowed  through  the  Huss- 
ite movement  of  Bohemia  and  eventuated  in  the  founda- 
tion of  the  religiously  purified  community  or  sect  known 
as  the  Unitas  Fratrum,  the  Bohemian  or  Moravian 
Brethren.  After  Tabor  was  destroyed  by  Podiebrad  in 
1453,  the  scattered  Taborites  combined,  and,  taking  the 
Gospel  as  their  sole  norm,  they  instituted  the  Brothers 
of  the  Law  of  Christ,  who  adopted  the  idea  of  com- 
munity of  goods,  declared  that  the  rich  man  should  ad- 
minister his  goods  for  his  brethren,  and  that  each 
brother  should  will  his  property  according  to  the  law 
of  God.  The  brethren  were  closely  related  to  the  Wal- 
densians  and  to  other  pre-Reformation  Protestants,  and 
they  suffered  much  persecution  from  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  authorities.  In  their  better  days  they  were  a 
powerful  force  for  righteousness.  The  modern  Mora- 
vians, whose  missionary  zeal  is  a  fragrance  in  the 
Church,  are  their  legitimate  successors  and  heirs.^^ 

"  See  page  165. 

>*Mosheim,   "Eccl.  Hist.,"  p.  378. 

"Moeller,  op,  cit.,  pp.  548-550.  "Brethren  were  witnesses  of  the 
death  of  Savonarola.  Writings  of  Bohemian  origin  were  translated  into 
the  Roman  dialect  of  the  Waldensians.  Discussions  were  held  ou  the 
grounds  of   Separation  from  the  Roman  Church," 

143 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Repentance,  humility,  poverty,  fasting,  praying,  and 
silence  were  the  principles  espoused  by  the  Minims, 
Minimos  Fratres,  established  by  Francis  de  Paula  of 
Calabria  in  1453.  Hermits  of  St.  Francis  was  the  name 
first  chosen,  and  this  is  one  of  the  orders  whose  members 
were  called  les  bons  hommes  (Boni  Homines)  for  their 
good  life.  In  Spain,  Ferdinand  called  them  Fathers  of 
Victory,  since  he  believed  that  it  was  by  reason  of  their 
prayers  that  Malaga  was  captured  from  the  Moors.  In 
reduced  strength  the  Minims  have  survived  to  the  pres- 
ent time. 

An  Austrian  Order  of  St.  Christopher,  dating  from 
1517,  may  here  be  named,  and  it  is  of  special  interest 
as  a  society  formed  to  check  intemperance  and  pro- 
fanity. More  definite  details  as  to  its  work  and  its  suc- 
cesses might  be  valuable.  The  Theatins  were  a  very 
austere  order  established  in  1524  by  Cajetan  (Gaetan 
of  Thiene),  who  examined  Luther  at  Augsburg,  and 
who  was  assisted  in  forming  his  order  by  three  friends. 
The  members  bound  themselves  to  hold  no  property, 
and  to  look  to  Providence  only  for  support,  with  no  ask- 
ing of  alms.  They  sought  to  reform  the  clergy  and  to 
combat  heresy,  and  are  now  represented  mainly  in  Italy. 
The  leading  spirit  of  this  society,  the  Oratory  of  Divine 
Love,  came  to  be  Caraifa,  Bishop  of  Chieti,  who  joined 
himself  to  Cajetan  with  enthusiasm,  published  pam- 
phlets against  the  Lutherans,  and  against  the  worldly 
influence  of  Clement  VII  sought  to  purify  the  lives  of 
the  priests.  He  made  the  society  an  aristocratic  train- 
ing-school for  men  of  high  family  who  should  become 
bishops  and  dignitaries.  New  members  were  admitted 
very  carefully,  and  the  influence  gained  by  the  order 
was  strong.^^  Caraffa  became  Pope  Paul  IV.  He  re- 
vived the  Italian  Inquisition  and  was  the  first  to  pub- 
lish a  general  **  Index  Librorum  Prohibitorum. "     The 

"Philippson,  op.  cit.,  "Hist.  All  Nations,"  Vol.  XI,  pp.  239  and  240. 

144 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

Barnabites,  founded  in  1532  by  Zaccliaria  of  Cremona 
and  two  noblemen  of  Milan,  began  with  principles  like 
those  of  the  Theatins,  but  soon  departed  from  their 
strictness.  It  was  also  their  office  to  convert  sinners 
and  to  bring  transgressors  to  repentance  and  obedience. 
During  the  nineteenth  century  several  famous  converts 
of  noble  Russian  families  were  made  by  this  order,  which 
is  represented  at  this  time  in  several  countries.^* 

No  Catholic  society  of  the  post-Reformation  period 
has  been  as  aggressive,  or  has  had  a  history  as  strenu- 
ous as  that  of  the  Society  or,  more  properly.  Company 
of  Jesus,  commonly  called  the  Jesuits.  It  is  frequently 
stated  that  this  organization,  which  has  numbered  in 
its  membership  many  of  the  most  astute  statesmen  and 
literateurs  of  the  Roman  party,  was  called  into  being 
for  the  purpose  of  seeking  to  repair  the  damages 
wrought  to  the  old  Church  by  Luther.  This,  however, 
is  denied  by  Catholic  historians,  who  state  that  when 
Ignatius  of  Loyola  instituted  his  society,  in  1534,  he 
had  little  or  no  knowledge  of  the  great  reformer.^* 

The  founder  of  the  Jesuits  was  a  Spanish  nobleman, 
Don  Inigo,  or  Ignatius,  trained  at  the  court  of  Ferdi- 
nand.^^ Early  in  life  he  was  impelled  by  thirst  for 
glory  to  enter  the  army.  At  the  Siege  of  Pamplona 
by  the  French  in  1521  he  was  wounded,  and  during  a 
protracted  recovery  he  turned  from  the  reading  of 
knightly  romances  to  the  lives  of  Jesus  Christ  and  the 
saints.  His  imagination  was  fired  with  thoughts  of  a 
career  greater  than  that  of  any  military  leader,  and, 
resolving  to  give  his  life  to  the  Church,  he  went  to  the 

"Ibid,  p.  240,  "The  Barnabites  worked  especially  for  the  conversion 
of  heretics,  thousands  of  whom  they  brought  back  into  the  Church  in 
Italy,  France,  and  Bohemia." 

"  See,  however,  the  next  chapter,  p.  166. 

=»  "Ignatius  Loyola  and  the  Early  Jesuits,"  Stewart  Rose,  p.  3. 
This  author  says,  "According  to  the  usages  of  the  time,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  service  of  a  noble  lady,  whose  name  in  after  days  never 
passed  his  lips." 

10  145 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Benedictine  Abbey  of  Montserrat,  confessed  his  sins, 
hung  upon  the  altar  his  sword  and  dagger,  and  took 
the  vow  of  chastity.  Going  to  Manresa,  he  hid  within 
a  rocky  cavern  near  the  town,  where  he  is  thought  to  have 
composed  the  first  draft  of  *'Exercitia  Spiritualia, ' ' 
Spiritual  Exercises,  to  which  the  soldier-like  nature  of 
the  Jesuit  Order  is  so  largely  due.  Ignatius  next  made 
a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine,  and  returning  with  the 
thought  of  his  new  order  in  his  brain,  together  with  a 
realization  of  his  deficiencies,  he  entered  at  thirty-three 
a  grammar  school  at  Barcelona,  where  he  became  as  a 
child  among  other  children,^^  and  then  went  to  the  uni- 
versities at  Alcala,  Salamanca,  and  lastly  to  Paris,  at 
which  place  he  remained  from  1528  to  1535,  receiving 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy. 

It  was  in  Paris  that  Ignatius  gathered  about  him  the 
first  companions  of  his  order.  On  August  15th  of  the 
jjrear  last  named,  in  the  chapel  of  Montmartre,  Paris, 
Ignatius  with  six  comrades,  including  Francis  Xavier, 
Boabdilla,  and  the  Portuguese  Rodriguez,  took  vows  to 
go  to  the  Holy  Land  and  to  seek  the  conversion  of  the 
infidels.  "War  with  the  Turks  prevented  this  step,  and 
the  brothers  devoted  themselves  to  labors  in  and  about 
Venice.  In  1538  they  proposed  formal  organization, 
and  the  next  year  they  secured  papal  sanction. 

The  motto  of  the  new  order  was  Ad  Majorem  Dei 
Gloriam,  and  in  addition  to  the  three  usual  monastic 
vows  the  members  promised  to  go  as  missionaries  when- 
ever the  pope  should  send  them.  Ignatius  became  gen- 
eral, and  the  root  idea  of  his  followers  was  to  become 
a  band  of  soldiers  for  the  Church.  For  about  ten  years, 
until  1550,  Ignatius  labored  on  the  rules  of  the  order, 

^  Father  Daniel  Bartoli,  in  his  '  'History  of  the  Life  and  Institute  of 
St.  Ignatius  De  Loyola,"  p.  114,  relates  the  impression  which  the  deep 
piety  of  the  man  made  on  the  mind  of  one  John  Paschal,  the  young  son 
of  his  hostess.  In  later  years  Paschal  would  say  to  his  children  that  if 
they  had  known  'that  guest  so  holy  and  gentle,  they  would  kiss  the  traces 
of  his  footsteps.'  " 

146 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

which  were  then  proposed  to  the  members  for  modifi- 
cations. The  revised  text  was  then  sent  to  all  the  fathers, 
even  in  India,  and  suggestions  were  asked.  The  third 
text,  thus  produced,  has  never  received  important 
changes,  and  is  now  in  force. 

The  formation,  as  it  is  called,  of  each  member  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus  takes  eighteen  years.  Two  years 
of  spiritual  exercises,  prayer,  meditation,  and  reading 
are  followed  by  the  three  vows  and  by  two  years  of  the 
humanities  and  of  the  modern  languages.  Then  come 
three  years  of  science  and  philosophy,  after  which  five 
years  are  spent  in  teaching  in  a  Jesuit  college,  in  the 
specialty  indicated  by  previous  studies.  Next  come 
three  years  of  theological  study  and  holy  orders ;  then  a 
year  more  of  theology,  followed  by  opportunity  for  mis- 
sion work  and  similar  occupations  for  a  year.  Finally, 
before  the  last  solemn  vow  of  obedience  to  the  pope, 
which  concludes  the  preparation  of  a  professed  father, 
is  a  year  of  the  study  of  spiritual  things  and  of  the  con- 
stitution and  rules  of  the  society  itself.  It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  understand  that  this  severe  process  eliminates 
many  aspirants,  and  that  the  professed  of  the  order 
are  relatively  few. 

As  the  establishment  of  the  Company  of  Jesus  co- 
incided with  the  Reformation,  the  strength  of  the  order 
was  first  devoted  to  contesting  with  that  movement. 
Macaulay  gives  the  Jesuits  credit  for  considerable  suc- 
cesses in  Germany,  and  for  much  influence  even  in  Eng- 
land.22  The  zeal,  fidelity,  and  spirit  of  willing  mar- 
tyrdom of  members  of  this  society  are  generally  con- 


22  "History  of  England,"  Thomas  Babington  Macaulay,  p.  582. 
Macaulay,  however,  says :  '  'Whatever  praises  those  fathers  might  justly 
claim,  flattery  itself  could  not  ascribe  to  them  either  wide  liberality  or 
strict  veracity.  That  they  had  never  scrupled,  when  the  interest  of  their 
order  was  at  stake,  to  call  in  the  aid  of  the  civil  sword,  or  to  violate 
the  laws  of  truth  and  of  good  faith,  had  been  proclaimed  to  the  world 
not  only  by  Protestant  accusers,  but  by  men  whose  virtue  and  genius 
were  the  glory  of  the  Church  of  Rome." 

147 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

ceded.  They  have  often  been  accused  of  cunning  and 
of  duplicity  in  ecclesiastical  and  political  intrigue,  and 
sometimes,  as  in  case  of  the  Parliament  Gunpowder  Plot 
in  England,  of  treason.  The  best  of  their  work  has  been 
in  missionary  and  educational  enterprises.  St.  Francis 
Xavier,  the  ''Apostle  of  the  Indies,"  and  of  Japan,  is 
in  the  view  of  many  the  most  admirable  character  as- 
sociated with  Jesuit  undertakings.  Xavier  was  sent  to 
India  in  1541  as  apostolic  missionary  and  nuncio,  and 
he  made  his  headquarters  at  Goa.  It  is  said  that  after 
six  years  he  had  founded  many  churches  and  had  made 
over  two  hundred  thousand  converts  from  paganism  to 
Christianity.  Francis  Xavier,  says  Dr.  Pierson,  "mis- 
guided as  he  was,  flamed  with  the  consuming  passion 
for  souls.  He  washed  the  sores  and  cleansed  the  clothes 
of  a  crew  sick  with  scurvy;  rang  a  bell  in  the  streets 
of  Goa  to  call  pupils  to  his  school;  and  after  a  fearful 
vision  of  perils  and  privations  before  him  as  the  price 
of  winning  isles  and  empires  to  Christ,  he  could  only  cry, 
'Yet  more,  0  my  God,  yet  more!'  No  marvel  if  dur- 
ing ten  years  he  visited  fifty  kingdoms,  preached  over 
nine  thousand  miles  of  territory,  and  baptized  a  million 
persons. ' '  ^* 

Another  brilliant  passage  in  the  history  of  this  or- 
ganization is  that  connected  with  early  American  explo- 
ration. As  missionaries  to  the  Indians  many  Jesuits 
proved  themselves  courageous  spirits,  and  not  a  few 
paid  the  penalty  with  their  lives ;  Jogues,  who  was  slain 
on  the  banks  of  the  Mohawk  in  1646,  De  Brebeuf  and 
Lallemant,  who  were  burned  at  the  stake  and  their 
hearts  cut  out  and  eaten  by  the  Lake  Superior  Indians, 
being  of  the  number.  LeMoyne,  Marquette,  Serra  are 
names  typical  of  Jesuit  missionaries  whose  explorations 
produced  valuable  knowledge  of  an  historical  and  scien- 

23  "Evangelistic  Work  in  Principle  and  Practice,"  Arthur  T.  Pierson, 
D.  D.,  p.  159.  See  "The  Life  and  Letters  of  St.  Francis  Xavier," 
Coleridge. 

148 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

tific  nature.  Beside  the  Mohawk  and  the  Mississippi, 
and  by  the  grave  of  Marquette  near  the  Straits  of  Mack- 
inac I  have  felt  the  restless  spirit,  and  have  admired  the 
dauntless  daring  of  these  intrepid  men.^*  *'The  Jesuit 
Relations  and  Allied  Documents"  is  a  series  of  seventy- 
two  volumes  of  travels  and  observations  which  consti- 
tute invaluable  sources  for  the  historian  of  America. 
The  Jesuits  were  early  missionaries  in  South  America 
also,  but  were  expelled  by  Charles  III.  They  erected 
many  of  the  great  churches  of  Europe,  and  not  a  few 
hospitals.  In  education  and  in  literature  they  have  been 
very  active,  and  they  have  had  the  warmest  friends  and 
the  bitterest  enemies,  having  a  remarkable  record  for 
expulsions  and  re-establishments  in  various  countries.^'' 
They  have  often  been  bitterly  opposed  from  within  the 
Roman  Church,  and  they  have  sometimes  been  most 
warmly  praised  by  Protestants.  Among  the  chief  seats 
of  Jesuit  learning  in  America  are  the  institutions  at 
IWoodstock,  Md.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Detroit,  Mich.,  and 
Montreal,  P.  Q. 

The  sixteenth  century  witnessed  the  institution  of 
oratories,^^  the  chief  name  connected  therewith  being 
St.  Philip  Neri,  who  was  a  native  of  Florence,  conspic- 
uous for  the  purity  of  his  life  and  for  his  purpose  to 

^  The  voyages  and  explorations  of  the  members  of  the  Society  of  JeHua 
have  been  made  famous  by  Francis  Parkman,  "Jesuits  in  North  America," 
and  by  others. 

5*  W.  M,  Blackburn,  "History  of  the  Christian  Church,"  p.  485,  says: 
* 'Expelled  from  one  land,  they  appeared  in  another  and  regained  the  lost 
ground;  suppress^ed  by  popes,  they  still  remained  irrepressible.  The 
Jesuits  were  expelled  from  France  in  1594,  but  readmitted  in  1604; 
again  repressed,  1764;  from  England,  1579,  1581,  1602;  from  Venice, 
1607;  Holland,  1708;  Portugal,  1759;  Spain,  1767;  the  order  abolished 
by  Clement  XIV,  1773,  but  restored  by  Pius  VI,  1814;  expelled  from 
Belgium,  1818;  Russia,  1820;  Austria,  Sardinia,  and  other  States.,  1848; 
Italy  and  Sicily,  1860;  suppressed  in  Germany,  1872;  when  under  ban 
they  have  sometimes  taken  such  names  as  'The  Society  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,'  or  'Fathers  of  the  Faith  of  Jesus,'  or  'Baccanari.'  " 

"Vide  Supra,  p.  132,  so  called  from  the  "Oratory"  or  cabinet  for 
devotion,  which  St.  Philip  Neri  built  for  himself  at  Florence  and  where 
he  held  spiritual  counsel  with  his  associates.  "Eccl.  Hist.,"  Mosheim, 
(Sec.  Ill,  Fart  1,  zviii. 

149 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

do  good  to  young  men.  In  1548  he  gathered  about  him 
a  group  of  sympathetic  spirits,  and  as  a  layman  he 
preached  to  them  on  having  zeal  for  God  without  re- 
tiring from  the  world.  Later  he  took  orders,  but  always 
maintained  popular  services  with  simple  devotions, 
hymns,  and  a  plain  conversational  sermon.  His  follow- 
ers took  no  irrevocable  vows.  The  work  became  famous 
and  drew  many  recruits.  After  three  centuries  in  Italy, 
in  1847  Dr.  Newman  introduced  it  into  England,  and 
Frederick  Faber  aided  in  promoting  its  interests.  Other 
congregations  have  also  taken  the  name  *' Oratory,''  es- 
pecially that  of  Cardinal  de  Berull  of  Paris,  who  in 
1611  organized  *'The  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  of 
Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  in  France."  To  this  society  are 
attached  not  a  few  famous  names,  Richard  Simon,  Mas- 
sillon,  and  Malebranche  being  of  the  number. 

It  would  be  a  hopeless  task  to  consider  in  these  pages 
the  vast  number  of  relatively  less  important  orders  and 
associations  which  arose  out  of  professed  apprehension 
of  heretics  or  out  of  pure  love  for  God  and  the  Church 
during  the  times  which  are  under  consideration  and 
during  those  which  succeeded  them.^'^  Most  of  these 
must  be  ignored,  and  but  a  little  space  can  profitably 
be  given  to  those  which  are  most  interesting. 

Two  strict  branches  of  Franciscans  were  originated 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century;  Picpus,  established 
by  Vincent  Mussart,  1594;  and  the  Recollects,  1597, 
who  were  of  the  observant  wing  of  their  order  and  never 
relaxed  their  rule.  The  Oblates,  instituted  in  1578, 
when  Charles  Borromeo,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  organ- 
ized a  band  of  zealous  secular  priests  called  the  congre- 
gation of  **  Oblates  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  of  Saint  Am- 
brose,'* gave  rise  to  several  similar  congregations. 

""All  these  orders,  differing  from  the  more  ancient,  and  having  the 
same  principle  of  active  work  among  the  people  which  characterized  the 
Jesuits,  were  powerful  agents  in  the  Roman  Catholic  reaction."  "His* 
tory  of  the  Christian  Church,"  John  Fletcher  Hurst,  Vol,  II,  p.  549. 

150 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

It  would  be  unjust  to  pass  the  name  of  Borromeo 
without  mention  of  the  personal  heroism  and  the  many 
Christian  works  of  so  remarkable  a  character.^^  Born 
in  Avona,  Italy,  1538,  and  living  until  1584,  Borromeo 
studied  law  at  Pavia,  but  later  turned  his  attention  to 
the  Church,  and  in  1560  was  appointed  by  Pius  IV,  his 
uncle,  to  the  positions  of  apostolic  prothonotary,  refer- 
endary, cardinal,  and  Archbishop  of  Milan.  Becoming 
legate  over  Romagna  and  other  places,  Borromeo  was 
powerful  in  civil  government,  and  he  held  spiritual  pro- 
tectorships over  several  countries  and  over  great  fra- 
ternal orders,  including  the  Franciscans  and  the  Knights 
of  Malta.  But  it  is  as  a  man  and  as  a  heroic  Christian 
laborer  in  lowly  fields  that  Borromeo  will  be  longest  re- 
membered. "When  in  1576  the  plague  broke  out  in  viru- 
lent and  awful  forms  in  the  city  of  Milan,  the  arch- 
bishop, who  at  the  time  was  staying  in  Lodi,  at  once 
volunteered  to  go  to  the  seat  of  infection.  His  clergy 
advised  him  to  remain  where  he  was.  *'No,'^  was  the 
answer,  **a  bishop  whose  duty  it  is  to  give  his  life  for 
the  flock  can  not  abandon  them  in  their  time  of  peril.*' 
So  Borromeo  went  to  Milan,  and  for  the  four  months  of 
the  prevalence  of  disease  and  death  he  went  about  visit- 
ing the  victims  in  their  homes,  in  the  hospitals,  and 
everywhere,  and  he  did  not  return  to  his  episcopal 
duties  until  the  last  case  of  sickness  was  concluded. 

This  man  was  also  one  of  the  originators  of  Sunday 
schools  for  the  education  of  the  poor.  Conditions  in 
Milan  being  deplorable,  the  cathedral  was  opened,  even 
on  the  Lord's  day,  to  teach  poor  children,  who  had  no 
other  chance  to  get  instruction,  to  read  and  to  write. 
** Three  hundred  years  have  passed,*'  says  a  modern 
writer,    ''and   Cardinal  Borromeo 's   Sunday   school  is 


«Yet  Hurst,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  p.  534,  says,  "He  brought  about 
reforms  in  the  convents  and  among  the  priests,  but  by  his  Jesuitical 
principles  he  was  able  to  work  the  destruction  of  evangelism  in  his 
spiritual  realm." 

151 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

still  continued. "  ^^  The  revenue  of  Borromeo's  offices 
and  property  were  spent  in  building  schools  and  col- 
leges, and  in  works  of  philanthropy.  Reforms  were 
instituted  among  the  clergy  and  in  the  monastic  orders, 
especially  the  Umiliati,  who  strongly  opposed  being  cor- 
rected and  joined  forces  with  opponents  and  persecutors 
of  one  of  the  most  able  and  praiseworthy  of  ecclesias- 
tical leaders.^^  The  name  of  the  order  which  Borromeo 
instituted,  the  '^Oblates,"  implies  that  the  members 
**  offer  themselves ''  to  perform  any  duty  which  may  be 
assigned  them  by  a  bishop.  The  Oblates  of  Italy  were 
organized  in  1816  to  control  the  missions  of  the  Roman 
Church  in  Burma.  The  Eudists  are  another  society  of 
secular  priests  instituted  to  train  the  clergy  and  to  con- 
duct ** missions,"  in  the  Catholic  meaning  of  the  term. 
They  were  founded  by  Jean  Eudes,  about  1643.^^ 

The  Lazarists,  the  Calvarines,  and  the  Order  of  St. 
Joseph  were  all  established  in  the  early  part  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century  as  congregations  of  mission  priests, 
yincent  de  Paul,  one  of  the  great  names  in  the  history 
of  true  charity, ^^  founded  the  first  named  in  1624,^^ 
when  he  was  tutor  and  chaplain  in  the  house  of  the 
Count  Gondi.  The  name  of  the  Lazarists  comes  from 
the  College  of  Saint  Lazarus  in  Paris,  which  became 
their  seat  in  1632.     The  direct  purpose  of  the  institu- 

=»  Samuel  Smiles,  LL.  D,,  "Duty,"  p.  211. 

"The  best  life  of  St,  Charles  is  that  by  Godeau,  See  also  that  by 
E.  H.  Thompson,  and  the  chapter  "Carlo  Borromeo,"  in  "Men  of 
Might,"    Benson  and  Tatham,   p.   91  ff. 

*i  The  "Encyclopedia  Americana"  gives  the  date  of  foundation  as 
1601,  a  manifest  error,  since  that  is  the  date  of  birth  of  the  founder. 

"2  S.  Cheetham,  D.  D.,  op.  cit.,  p.  95:  "Among  those  who  have  car- 
ried on  the  work  of  Christ  among  the  poor  and  needy  there  is  perhaps 
no  greater  than  Vincent  de  Paul.  He  himself  in  poverty  and  slavery 
learned  to  feel  for  the  wretchedness  of  others  and  devoted  his  life  to 
alleviate  it." 

"^Bougaud,  "History  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,"  p.  203:  "The  ladies* 
rules  are  dated  1617,  those  for  men,  1620.  Was  that  the  first?  Had  he 
not  established  an  association  for  men  at  Clichy  and  Chfttillon?"  This 
reference  is  to  the  lay  societies  of  St.  Vincent. 

152 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

tion  was  by  mission  to  awaken  the  country  districts  to 
the  peril  of  bad  confessions.  The  formally-stated  ob- 
jects, however,  are  three:  1.  the  sanctification  of  its 
own  members ;  2.  the  work  of  preaching  missions ;  3.  the 
training  of  an  exemplary  clergy. 

The  claim  to  originality  attached  to  the  name  of  the 
Priests  of  the  Mission  as  established  by  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  is  that,  like  his  earlier  associations  of  men,  they 
were  to  be  devoted  solely  to  the  poor,  dull  country  peo- 
ple. * '  0  gentlemen ! ' '  Vincent  is  said  to  have  frequently 
exlaimed  to  his  first  disciples,  "the  poor  are  our  por- 
tion. Evangelizare  pauperihus  misit  me.  What  a  bless- 
ing !  Gentlemen,  what  a  blessing !  to  do  that  which  our 
Saviour  has  come  on  earth  to  do,  to  continue  the  work 
of  this  God  Saviour,  who  forsook  the  cities  to  go  to  seek 
the  poor  in  the  rural  districts — in  a  word,  to  aid  the 
poor,  our  lords  and  masters,  such  is  our  mission."^* 

In  the  spirit  of  a  high  devotion  to  the  physical  and 
spiritual  interests  of  poverty  and  of  distress,  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul  labored  for  many  years,  drawing  to  him- 
self nobles  like  Baron  de  Renty,  who  gave  up  rank  and 
wealth  for  a  higher  mission,  attracting  youthful  enthu- 
siasts who  sought  the  most  difficult  priesthood,  that  of 
the  people,  and  moving  all  classes  of  people  to  devote 
great  sums  and  earnest  labors  to  philanthropy. 

During  the  lifetime  of  St.  Vincent  his  order  had 
covered  France  and  had  invaded  Italy,  Corsica,  Poland, 
Ireland,  Scotland,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Madagascar.  On 
the  African  coast  the  Lazarist  missionaries  vied  with 
the  Order  of  Mercy  in  redeeming  slaves.  The  Calva- 
rines,  founded  by  Charpentier  in  1635,  the  Order  of  St. 
Joseph,  which  Cretenet  formed  at  Lyons,  1640,  and  the 
Lazarists  alike  perished  during  the  Revolution,  but  the 
last  named  society  was  revived  in  1804,  abolished  byj 
Napoleon  in  1809,  and  again  resurrected  in  1816.     It 

•*  Op.  cit.  supra,  p.  220. 

153 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

is  now  represented  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world, 
and  has  especial  charge  of  Asiatic  missions  since  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Jesuits  in  1773.^^  The  present  Order  of 
St.  Joseph  was  instituted  by  Von  Crombrugghe  at  Gram- 
mont,  Belgium,  in  1817,  as  an  educational  brotherhood.^* 

To  the  eighteenth  century  belong  the  origin  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  institution  of 
the  Marists,  the  Passionists,  and  the  Redemptorists. 
The  first  named  of  these  brotherhoods  dates  from  Paris, 
1703,  being  the  fruit  of  the  labors  of  Claude  Desplaces. 
In  1848  the  Missioners  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary,  organized  by  Francis  M.  P.  Lieberman  in  1841, 
united  with  them  to  form  the  modern  congregation  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  both  societies  having  the  same  objects, 
the  perfection  of  the  members,  and  the  evangelization 
of  the  blacks,  particularly  in  Africa.  The  society  also 
entered  the  field  of  education,  the  French  Seminary  at 
Rome  becoming  its  most  noted  school. 

All  the  Marist  societies  are  recorded  among  those 
which  are  interested  in  missions,^'^  but  the  Missionaries 
of  the  Company  of  Mary,  established  in  1713  by  Louis- 
Marie  Grignon  de  Montfort,  became  the  leading  organi- 
zation of  Marists  in  this  sphere  of  effort.  Parochial 
missions  were  in  the  early  thought  of  the  founder,  who 
died  three  years  after  writing  his  rule,  leaving  two 
young  priests  and  a  few  lay  brothers  as  the  sole  rep- 
resentatives of  his  prayers,  travels,  and  self-sacrifices. 
From  1718  to  1780  the  Montfortists  conducted  four  hun- 
dred and  thirty  missions.  They  fought  Jansenism  and 
preached  with  success  against  the  ** heresies''  of  La  Ven- 
dee and  the  Savoy,  furnishing  seven  Vendean  martyrs. 
A  foreign  mission  to  Haiti  was  undertaken  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century.    Later,  mission  schools 

"5  "The   Annales    de   la    Con^egation   de   la    Mission"    are   found   in 
French,  Italian,  German,  Spanish,  Polish,  and  English  editions. 
"Vide  infra,  p.  180. 
wVide  infra,  p.  180.     Also  for  Montfort,  p.  178. 

154 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

were  established,  Denmark,  the  Netherlands,  and  Amer- 
ica were  entered,  and  in  1901  the  company  took  charge 
of  an  African  mission. 

Paolo  Francesco  Danei,  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross,  was 
living  in  religious  retirement  on  Mt.  Argentaro,  when 
it  was  revealed  to  him  that  he  was  to  found  an  order, 
which  after  surmounting  not  a  few  hills  of  difficulty  he 
was  able  to  do.  In  1720  he  was  permitted  to  assume  the 
habit  of  his  order  and  as  a  layman  to  preach  repentance ; 
and  in  1737,  ten  years  after  his  ordination,  he  opened 
the  first  Passionist  settlement  on  the  summit  above 
named.  The  rules  of  the  order  had  been  written  long 
before,  when  the  founder  was  yet  a  layman,  and  before 
he  had  assembled  companions.  *'I  began  to  write  this 
holy  rule,''  says  its  author,  *'on  the  second  of  December 
in  the  year  1720,  and  I  finished  it  on  the  seventh  day 
of  the  same  month.  And  be  it  known  that  when  I  was 
writing  I  went  on  as  quickly  as  if  somebody  in  a  profess- 
or's chair  were  there  dictating  to  me.  I  felt  the  words 
come  from  my  heart.  "^^  The  Congregation,  Discalced 
Clerks  of  the  Most  Holy  Cross  and  Passion  of  Our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  spread  widely  in  Europe,  and  entered  Eng- 
land in  1842,  and  ten  years  later  the  United  States, 
where  they  prospered,  and  in  1906  became  two  prov- 
inces: St.  Paul  of  the  Cross,  and  Holy  Cross.  The  life 
of  the  Passionists  is  austere  above  that  of  most  other 
societies.  Its  members  are  said  to  fast  three  days  in 
each  week,  as  well  as  through  Advent  and  Lent.  They 
sleep  little,  and  on  straw  beds  with  straw  pillows,  and 
they  dress  very  simply.  The  life  is  one  of  conducting 
missions  and  retreats,  or  else  of  being  engaged  in  study, 
in  spiritual  reading,  and  in  contemplation. 

The  Redemptorists,  or  Congregation  of  the  Most 
Holy  Redeemer,  were  founded  by  Alphonsus  Maria  de 
Liguori,  a  noble  Neapolitan  who  had  left  the  bar  for 

»  "Life  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross,"  II,  v. 

155 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

the  pulpit,  in  1732,  at  Scala.  The  moral  and  spiritual 
destitution  of  the  masses  in  cities  and  in  rural  districts 
impressed  Alphonsus  and  appealed  to  his  sense  of  duty, 
and  he  taught  his  order  of  secular  priests  to  imitate  in 
poverty  and  in  zeal  the  life  of  Jesus,  to  refuse  all  dig- 
nities outside  the  society,  and  to  minister  by  missions 
to  all  such  as  seemed  to  be  most  neglected  by  the  other 
clergy.  The  order  soon  prospered,  and  it  still  flourishes 
widely.^^ 

The  titles  of  missionary  orders  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury make  a  considerable  catalogue.*^  A  second  Society 
of  Picpus,*^  a  congregation  established  by  Pierre  Cou- 
drin  at  Paris  in  1805,  entered  upon  the  field  of  educa- 
tion, having  a  number  of  seminaries.  About  1825  sev- 
eral members  were  sent  to  the  Pacific  Islands  to  convert 
the  savages  to  Christianity,  with  the  result  that  the 
order  has  since  been  given  to  great  missionary  activity. 
One  of  the  most  noted  of  the  members  was  the  famous 
Apostle  to  the  Lepers,  Father  Damien,  Joseph  Damien 
de  Veuster,  a  Belgian  priest,  who  was  sent  to  Honolulu. 
There  he  heard  of  the  neglected  state  of  the  leper  colony 
of  seven  or  eight  hundred  people  on  the  small  Island  of 
Molokai,*^  and  he  offered  himself  as  a  missionary  to  this 
sad  community.  From  1877  he  became  a  physician  to 
leprous  bodies,  magistrate  and  teacher  to  the  minds  of 
the  distressed,  chief  agriculturist  and  superintendent  of 
industry,  cook,  carpenter,  and  even  gravedigger,  when 
necessity  arose.  But  above  all  he  was  minister  of  Christ 
and  pastor  of  souls,  working  for  some  years  single- 
handed,  and  then  being  joined  by  an  associate  in  his 
office  of  living  sacrifice.     After  twelve  years  of  noble 

89  S.  Cheetham,  op.  cit.,  p.  97. 

*»For  a  full  list,  vide  "Missiones  Catholicae,"  p.  853  ff. 

"  The  first  was  a  reformed  Franciscan  fraternity,  Supra,  p.  150. 

*^An  account  of  an  early  visit  to  this  island,  which  represents  mingled 
horrors  and  fascinations,  is  found  in  C.  W.  Stoddard's  ''Summer  Cruis- 
ing in  the  South  Seas,"  p.  109  ff. 

156 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

toil  the  fatal  disease  whose  ravages  in  others  he  had. 
lessened  or  consoled  seized  upon  Father  Damien  him- 
self, but  he  continued  his  activities  until  the  end,  which 
came  in  1889.  Not  even  such  a  life  as  this,  however, 
was  able  to  escape  the  tongue  of  criticism,  but  to  his 
chief  detractor  a  scathing  rebuke  was  ministered  by  the 
able  pen  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson.** 

The  Fathers  of  Mercy  were  at  first  Missionaires  de 
France,  established  1808  by  Rauzan  of  Bordeaux  for 
the  restoration  of  religion  after  the  Revolution.  The 
modern  order  began  from  1834:  to  conduct  missions,  to 
assist  parochial  clergy,  and  to  serve  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion. Gaspar  Bufalo  in  1814  founded  in  Rome  the 
Congregation  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood  to  devote  itself 
exclusively  to  parochial  missions.  This  order  entered 
the  United  States  in  1844,  beginning  its  work  at  Nor- 
walk,  Ohio.  Charles  de  Mazenod  in  1815  at  Marseilles 
instituted  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate.  The  Ros- 
minians,  or  Fathers  of  Charity,  founded  by  Antonio 
Rosmini  in  1828  are  a  congregation  of  preachers,  teach- 
ers, and  missionaries,  as  are  the  Mission  Priests  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  Lammenais,  1829,  which  ab- 
sorbed also  the  society  of  St.  Peter  Felicite.  The  Mis- 
sionaries of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  of  Annecy  were  insti- 
tuted by  Mermier  at  LaFeuillette  in  1830.  It  was  to 
be  a  new  religious  congregation  bound  by  simple  vows, 

«See  Stevenson's  famous  "Letter  to  Br.  Hyd^."  However,  Steven- 
son recognized  the  idiosyncracies  and  even  serious  faults  of  Father 
Damien,  for  in  a  letter  to  Sidney  Colvin  in  1889,  he  said:  "It  was  a 
European  peasant;  dirty,  bigoted,  untruthful,  unwise,  tricky,  but  superb 
with  generosity,  residual  candour,  and  fundamental  good-humour;  convince 
him  that  he  had  done  wrong  (it  might  take  hours  of  insult)  and  he 
would  undo  what  he  had  done  and  like  his  corrector  better.  A  man, 
with  all  the  grime  and  paltriness  of  mankind,  but  a  saint  and  hero  all  the 
more  for  that."  "Letters  and  Miscellanies  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson," 
Vol.  II,  p.  188.  "Father  Damien,"  by  Philibert  Tauvel,  and  the  life 
written  by  Edward  Clifford  are  very  interesting  accounts  of  the  man 
and  of  his  work,  but  the  latter  is  much  more  human  and  real  in  the 
picture  which  it  presents.  This  is  a  well-worded  statement,  as  the 
frontispiece  of  Mr.  Clifford's  book  is  a  sketch  of  Father  Damien  by 
Mr.  Clifford  and  which  reminds-  one  of  Angelo's  "David,"  a  face  at  which 
I  never  tired  of  looking. 

157 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

and  the  members  offered  themselves  for  foreign  mis- 
sions. Being  accepted  in  1845,  the  first  representatives 
were  sent  to  India,  and  a  work  began  which  spread 
quite  widely.  The  dioceses  of  Nagpur  and  Vizagapa- 
tam  have  always  been  under  prelates  of  this  order.  The 
Confraternity  of  the  Most  Holy  and  Immaculate  Heart 
of  Mary  was  a  pious  association  established  in  1837  by 
Abbe  Desgenettes,  Paris,  for  the  conversion  of  sinners. 
The  Missionary  Sons  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  began 
their  work  in  Spain  in  1848  under  Claret.  The  Mis- 
sionary Fathers  of  La  Sallette  were  instituted  at  Gre- 
noble in  1852,  not  only  to  conduct  missions,  but  to  com- 
bat the  crimes  of  the  age,  recalled  by  the  apparition  at 
La  Sallette.  The  Paulist  Fathers,  Missionary  Society 
of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle,  1858,  the  first  Catholic  congre- 
gation of  American  origin,  was  founded  by  Isaac  Hecker, 
who  was  previously  of  the  Brook  Farm  *  *  Transcenden- 
talists,''  and  who,  with  several  other  converts,  mainly 
from  the  Episcopal  Church,  entered  upon  a  mission  to 
convert  non-Catholics.  The  Paulists  do  not  take  the 
usual  vows,  but  are  said  to  live  the  life  of  the  vows 
most  strictly.  They  have  introduced  into  the  Catholic 
Church  a  definite,  well-organized  missionary  and  liter- 
ary propaganda  to  bring  churchmen  of  other  commun- 
ions into  the  Roman  fold.  They  use  the  press  freely. 
In  1865  they  founded  a  monthly,  called  The  Catholic 
World,  and  they  have  established  other  journals  which 
advocate  the  principles  and  further  the  work  of  the  or- 
der. Missionary  houses  are  located  in  various  parts  of 
the  country,  and  the  Paulists  are  well  known  for  their 
aggressiveness.^* 

The  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary, 
Yerbiest,  1863,  called  also  the  Congregation  of  Seheut- 
veld,  with  vast  missions  in  China  and  in  Africa,  the  So- 

**  The  •  'Life  of  Father  Hecker, ' '  Walter  Elliott. 

158 


AUSTERE  AND  MISSIONARY  ORDERS 

ciety  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  who  work  among 
Armenians  and  Georgians,  1864;  the  Society  of  the  Di- 
vine Word,  1875,  and  the  Congregation  of  the  Missiona- 
ries of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  1887,  devoted  to  providing 
priests  and  missions  for  Italian  emigrants  to  America, 
may  be  studied  as  types  of  the  later  missionary  orders 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  such  study  makes  it  evident 
that  in  the  detachment  of  many  bodies  of  clergy  in 
brotherhoods  for  special  and  advanced  undertakings  the 
Church  is  producing  in  many  quarters  results  favorable 
to  its  plans,  as  it  is  doing  in  its  lay  societies  also. 
"Without  a  doubt  these  movements  contain  lessons  whose 
learning  would  be  profitable  to  all  branches  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

It  has  been  seen  that  the  missionary  orders  of  the 
Roman  Church  are  of  two  general  classes:  those  mainly 
devoted  to  home  and  to  foreign  missions  respectively. 
Societies  for  the  latter  object  have  been  very  ably  di- 
rected by  the  propaganda  and  supported  by  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  Lyons,  1822,  and  they 
have  borne  the  organization  of  the  Roman  Church  to 
the  ends  of  the  earth.*^  Of  the  former  type  are  those 
which  seek  the  development  of  the  Church  itself  by  in- 
structing its  priesthood  and  laity,  and  those  which  seek 
to  combat  views  regarded  as  heretical  and  to  convert 
those  holding  such  views.  Schroeder  explains  the  ne- 
cessity for  parochial  missions  by  saying :  * '  Owing  to  the 
changed  conditions,  intellectual,  social,  as  well  as  re- 
ligious, the  older  style  of  popular  preaching  had  become 
inadequate  to  the  exigencies  of  the  age.  The  increasing 
number  of  sects  with  itinerant  representatives,  and  a 
corresponding   spread  of   religious   indifference,   called 

«  "History  of  the  Christian  Church,"  Fisher,  p.  583,  "The  move- 
ments of  its  missionaries  have  been  all  the  more  effective  from  having 
been  guided  by  a  single  committee  composed  of  the  cardinals  of  the 
Propaganda." 

159 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

for  specially  organized  work  on  the  part  of  th'ei 
Church/'*^  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  it  was 
the  formation  of  these  preaching  brotherhoods  and  the 
activity  of  the  other  Roman  orders  in  taking  up  labors 
of  the  same  nature  that  saved  the  Roman  Church  of 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  from  annihila- 
tion. At  the  least  they  prevented  many  disastrous 
losses,  they  gained  some  substantial  additions  to  the 
cause  of  Catholicism,  and  they  proved  to  be  a  right  arm 
of  power  and  a  long  and  strong  arm  of  influence  to  the 
Church  which  gave  them  birth.  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that  the  propagandist  orders  far  exceeded  in  value 
those  societies  devoted  to  ascetic  and  contemplative  ex- 
ercises. Their  members  were,  as  a  rule,  quite  as  pious 
and  devoted  as  were  the  others,  and  their  courage  proved 
equal  to  the  highest  ventures.  Even  those  who  saw 
clearly  their  faults  and  who  loved  them  little  bore  wit- 
ness to  the  brilliant  talents  and  the  surpassing  heroism 
of  their  best  examples,  and  their  exploits  printed  many^ 
a  brave  page  in  the  annals  of  Christian  conquest. 

*«  "Catholic   Encyclopedia,"    "Catholic   Parochial   Missions,"    Joseph 
Schroeder. 


160 


XI 

EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

TEACHERS  AND  LITTERATEURS 

**The  wide-reaching  influences  of  Christianity/'  says 
Professor  Painter,  *'have  profoundly  affected  education. 
Christianity  has  placed  education  upon  a  new  and  mem- 
orable foundation.*'^  The  thought  which  this  compe- 
tent authority  proceeds  to  develop  is  that  in  teaching 
the  Fatherhood  of  God  Christianity  removed  from  edu- 
cation the  fetters  of  national  limits  and  prejudice,  and 
that  in  giving  the  world  the  great  conception  of  the 
brotherhood  of  mankind  the  character  both  of  civiliza- 
tion and  of  education  has  been  lifted  out  of  the  realm 
of  class  distinctions  and  away  from  the  vices  sanctioned 
by  the  philosophy  and  religion  of  ancient  society.  Pro- 
fessor Painter  also  emphasizes  the  fact  that  in  His  man- 
ner of  instructing  His  disciples  Christ  gave  to  educa- 
tors valuable  lessons  in  method,  and  he  quotes  Karl 
Schmidt's  saying,  ''By  word  and  deed,  in  and  with  His 
whole  life,  Christ  is  the  teacher  and  educator  of  man- 
kind. "^ 

During  the  period  of  Christian  history  which  ends 
with  the  Reformation  the  Church  had  first  of  all  its  way 
to  make,  and  then  became  subject  to  tendencies  which 
confined  the  scope  of  its  educational  undertakings  to 
the  work  of  the  monasteries  and  of  the  priesthood.  To 
early  Christian  people,  most  of  whom  were  illiterate, 
their  religion  became   an  education,   and  parents  in- 

1  "History  of  Education,"  Professor  F.  V.  N.  Painter,  p.  81. 
'Ibid,  p.  85. 

11  161 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

structed  their  children,  especially  in  the  Scriptures. 
Catechumenal  schools  sprang  up  in  the  Apostolic  Age,^ 
and  were  followed  by  catechetical,  episcopal,  and  cathe- 
dral institutions,  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  cate- 
chetical schools  being  that  at  Alexandria,  established  in 
the  second  century,  where  teachers  and  preachers  were 
educated  and  where  theological  science  had  its  birth. 
Schools  were  instituted  in  private  houses  and  teachers 
were  paid  by  gifts  of  pupils.  In  the  Western  Empire 
the  schools  were  at  first  of  civil  foundation.*  After  the 
barbarian  conquest  the  social  system  was  subverted,  and 
literary  institutions  felt  the  effects,  and  by  the  sixth 
century  profane  learning  and  the  methods  of  acquiring 
it  alike  disappeared.  The  ascetic  tendency  had  long 
struggled  against  heathen  science.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury Basil  the  Great  declared,  **In  the  combat  which 
we  have  to  deliver  for  the  Church  we  ought  to  be  armed 
with  every  resource,  and  to  this  end  the  reading  of  poets, 
historians,  and  orators  is  very  useful."  But  Augustine 
of  the  fifth  century  with  vehemence  opposed  this  view. 
** Those  endless  and  godless  fables,"  he  declared,  ''with 
which  the  productions  of  conceited  poets  swarm  by  no 
means  accord  with  our  freedom;  neither  do  the  bom- 
bastic and  polished  falsehoods  of  the  orator,  nor  finally 
the  wordy  subtleties  of  the  philosopher." 

By  the  conclusion  of  the  sixth  century  the  office  of 
instruction  had  come  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy .* 
Municipal  schools  were  succeeded  by  cathedral  or  epis- 
copal   establishments,    attached    to    the    residences    of 

'"Justin  Martyr,  alsout  A.  D.  150,  says  that  those  admitted  to  the 
Church  by  baptism  had  been  previously  prepared  privately."  "The 
Cliurch  of  Christ,"  A.  H.  Charteris,  p.  179.  The  author  goes  on  to 
describe  the  method  by  which  catechumens  of  various  ages  were  trained 
by  the  early  Church. 

*  "History  of  the  Church,"  George  Waddington,  M,  A.,  p.  262.  "And 
intended  entirely  for  the  purposes   of  civil   education." 

5  "A  History  of  Education  Before  the  Middle  Ages,"  Graves,  p.  294. 
"With  the  decree  of  Justinian,  and  the  downfall  of  the  pagan  schools, 
the  Chrisitiau  education  seems  to  have  been  left  alone  in  the  field." 

162 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

bishops,  and  in  the  country  elementary  schools  were 
formed  in  monasteries  and  in  the  residences  of  parochial 
priests.  In  these  schools  ''purely  secular  studies  were 
pursued  only  in  the  interest  of  the  Church/' «  Disci- 
pline was  very  severe,  and  reading  and  writing  did  not 
usually  form  part  of  the  curriculum,  but  the  youths 
were  taught  the  elements  of  Christian  doctrine,  and 
were  prepared  for  public  worship  and  for  Church  mem- 
bership. Probably  the  expense  of  even  this  meager 
training  was  a  heavy  responsibility  and  may  in  part 
account  for  the  failure  of  the  Church  to  furnish  a  bet- 
ter course  of  study.  The  parochial  schools  answered  to 
the  early  catechetical  institutions,  and  the  priests  of  each 
cathedral  church  were  organized  into  a  monastic  brother- 
hood, one  of  the  foremost  offices  of  which  was  education, 
mainly  of  an  other-worldly  nature. 

The  glimmering  light  of  the  necessarily  imperfect 
educational  system  which  has  been  thus  briefly  sketched 
was  almost  wholly  extinguished  in  Italy  by  the  Lombard 
invasion,  Rome  alone  retaining  some  zeal  for  learning, 
and  it  was  not  until  Charlemagne  that  reanimation  be- 
gan to  come  to  the  intellectual  life  of  Europe.  This 
mighty  man  had  a  great  thirst  for  knowledge.  He 
invited  to  his  court  the  best  scholars  of  the  day,  of 
whom  Alcuin  of  England  was  the  most  learned.  He 
established  a  model  school,  contemplated  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  popular  educational  system,  opposed  the  world- 
liness  and  immorality  which  had  corrupted  the  clergy 
and  monks,  and  laid  upon  them  the  obligation  to  teach 
the  sciences,  to  the  end  that  the  Scriptures  might  be 
better  understood.  A  new  intellectual  activity  was  thus 
stimulated,  which,  however,  died  away  during  the  weak 
reign  which  followed,  and  until  the  Crusades  mental 

e  Painter,  op.  cit.,  p.  100.  J.  J.  Walsh,  * 'Education,  How  Old  the 
New?"  p.  96,  "The  Church  must  certainly  be  held  responsible  in  every 
way  for  the  teaching  of  the  Middle  Ages,  both  as  regards  its  extent  and 
its  limitations." 

163 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

culture,  which  was  still  under  ecclesiastical  control, 
greatly  degenerated.  It  was  during  this  period  that  the 
Mohammedan  learning,  especially  in  Spain,  whither  it 
had  been  carried  by  the  influence  of  the  Encyclopedia 
of  1100,  and  of  the  system  of  higher  education  instituted 
at  Basra  by  the  Brothers  of  Sincerity,  came  to  its  best 
expressions  and  then  passed  into  insignificance.'" 

Knightly  education  was  imbued  with  principles  the 
very  opposite  to  those  of  the  Church  schools.  Physical 
culture  was  held  to  be  important,  military  science  was 
thoroughly  taught,  with  the  elements  of  chivalry;  to 
speak  truth,  to  defend  right,  to  honor  women,  to  fight 
the  Moslems,  and  to  master  poetry  and  music.  The 
Minne-songs  were  the  flower  of  knightly  culture,  and 
the  purely  intellectual  studies  were  abandoned.  In  spite 
of  its  gallantry  the  knightly  culture,  like  the  Spartan 
and  the  Roman,  savored  of  the  discipline  of  severity.^ 
But  the  rise  of  the  town  schools,  which  were  rendered 
necessary  by  the  growth  of  the  mediaeval  cities,  intro- 
duced practical  themes,  beginning  with  the  indispensa- 
bles,  vulgarly  termed  the  **  Three  R's.''  Geography,  his- 
tory, and  natural  science  were  introduced  into  the 
burgher  schools,  and  Latin  also;  and  despite  the  strife 
as  to  whether  the  control  of  the  educational  system 
should  be  civil  or  religious,  and  notwithstanding  the 
small  remuneration  and  uncertain  employment  of  teach- 
ers, many  of  whom  were  vagrants,  some  progress  was 
made  toward  better  standards. 

It  was  during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
that  the  Church  was  at  the  zenith  of  its  power  to  domi- 
nate Europe.  **  Human  history  is  without  any  parallel 
to  the  life  of  these  centuries  or  to  the  state  which  society 

*  "A  History  of  Education  During  the  Middle  Ages,"  Frank  Pierre- 
pont  Graves,  Ph.  D.,  pp.  40-45. 

•"Text-Book  in  the  Principles  of  Education,"  Ernest  Norton  Hen- 
derson, Ph.  D.,  p.  439. 

164 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

had  now  reached. ' '  ®  The  whole  range  of  human  activity- 
was  subject  to  ecclesiastical  control,  but  at  this  very  time 
the  other-worldliness  which  had  for  centuries  controlled 
intellectual  life  began  to  be  broken  in  upon  by  the  rise 
of  a  new  spirit  which  founded  universities.  At  first 
these  institutions  were  characterized  by  a  free  and  im- 
moral tone,  but  at  length  they  were  drawn  into  relation 
with  Church  and  State,  the  charters  came  from  the 
popes,  and  the  Church  dominated  their  life.^°  In  the 
fourteenth  century,  before  the  modern  educational  sys- 
tems had  been  perfected,  the  Brotherhood  of  Gerhard 
Groote  took  up  the  work  of  popular  instruction.^^  With- 
out assuming  the  vows  of  monasticism  the  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life  labored  unselfishly  in  this  great  cause. 
Special  emphasis  was  still  laid  upon  purely  religious 
education.  *' Spend  no  time,"  said  the  founder,  *' either 
on  geometry,  arithmetic,  rhetoric,  logic,  grammar, 
poetry,  or  astrology.  All  these  branches  Seneca  rejects ; 
how  much  more,  then,  should  a  spiritually-minded 
Christian  pass  them  by."  Practical  religious  culture 
was,  however,  well  imparted,  with  a  considerable  amount 
of  sound  knowledge.  The  schools  of  the  brotherhood  be- 
came popular,  and  from  all  quarters  studious  youths 
poured  into  them. 

Famous  institutions  controlled  by  the  Hieronymian 
or  Gregorian  Brethren,  as  they  were  sometimes  called, 
from  the  names  of  their  patron  saints,  were  those  at 
Deventer,  ZwoUe,  Liege,  Louvain,  Mechlin,  Cambrai,  and 
Valenciennes.  They  also  founded  the  College  de  Mon- 
taign  in  connection  with  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
the   students   in   their   schools   were   many  thousands. 

""Social  Evolution,"  Benjamin  Kidd,  p.  137.  "AH  the  attainments 
of  the  Greek  and  Roman  genius  are  buried  out  of  sight." 

"  The  relation  between  the  Dominicans  and  the  Universities  of  Europe 
is  treated  at  length  in  chapter  xiv,  "Christian  Schools  and  Scholars," 
A.  T.  Drane. 

"  See  pp.  88-91. 

165 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

These  institutions  became  recognized  centers  of  the 
humanistic  learning  which  entered  so  largely  into  the 
preparation  for  the  Reformation  under  Luther/^  In 
Germany  they  prevented  the  new  study  of  the  classics, 
which  the  art  of  printing,  discovered  in  1440,  had  given 
great  stimulation,  from  carrying  Christianity  away  from 
its  moorings  into  cultured  heathenism,  and  they  turned 
the  influence  of  the  new  education  toward  the  strength- 
ening and  purification  of  the  Church.^^ 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  evident  that  it  was  not  a 
symmetrical  or  satisfactory  development  which  attended 
the  history  of  education  before  the  Reformation,  but  the 
Renaissance  in  the  fifteenth  century  marked  a  new 
gathering  of  life,  and  the  attention  of  the  Roman  Church 
was  forcibly  turned  to  the  need  of  a  broader  and  deeper 
intellectual  culture  by  the  upheaval  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. The  biographer  of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola  says:  **He 
saw  that  the  Reformers  were  striving  to  lay  hold  of 
the  rising  generation,  and  that  the  most  effectual  means 
of  encountering  them  was  to  secure  the  Catholic  train- 
ing of  the  young.  Therefore  he  made  the  instruction 
of  the  young  a  part  of  the  Jesuit 's  duties. ' '  ^*    The  first 

"Graves,  op.  cit.,  p.  146.  "Before  the  opening  of  the  Renaissance 
they  had  established  a  chain  of  forty-five  houses  extending  through  the 
Netherlands,  the  German  States,  and  France,  and  within  a  generation  this 
number  had  trebled." 

*^  Kurtz,  "History  of  the  "  Christian  Church  to  the  Reformation,'* 
Edersheim  edition,  p.  502:  "In  Germany  these  studies  were  chiefly 
cultivated  by  the  'Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,'  who  succeeded  in 
adapting  the  new  weapons  to  the  service  of  theology  and  of  the  Church. 
This  school  gave  birth  to  many  of  the  coadjutors  of  Luther."  Ibid: 
"In  truth,  the  despised  schoolmen  and  the  derided  monks  were  not 
always  in  the  wrong  in  their  opposition  to  the  Humanists.  A  reforma- 
tion of  the  Church  accomplished  by  them  alone  would  speedily  have 
landed   in   heathenism. ' ' 

""Saint  Ignatius  Loyola,"  Francis  Thompson,  p.  168:  "During 
the  first  four-  or  five  years  of  his  new  order,  this  instruction  was  con- 
fined to  religious  teaching,  but  that,  he  perceived,  was  not  sufficient.  He 
must  provide  also  secular  training.  The  new  doctrines  were  threatening 
to  capture  the  Universities ;  and  his  Society  would  have  to  be  a  learned 
society.  ...  So  he  labored  to  establish  instruction  likewise  in  the 
Bciences— excluding  only  such  as  seemed  inimical  to  religion." 

166 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

regular  college  of  the  society  was  established  in  1546 
by  the  zeal  of  Francis  Borgia.  It  was  located  at  Gandia, 
and  its  regulations  were  afterward  extended  to  all  the 
Jesuit  colleges.  Thus  the  missionary  Jesuits  entered  the 
field  of  education.^^  Similar  action  was  taken  by  most 
of  the  older  orders,  and  many  new  societies  sprang  up 
whose  twofold  object  was  to  combat  the  opponents  of 
the  Church  and  to  furnish  Christian  education. 

The  leaders  of  the  Reformation  were  men  of  erudi- 
tion, and  they  were  ardent  advocates  of  the  cause  of 
education,  as  have  been  also  their  descendants.^®  The 
scholarly  Reuchlin  applied  to  his  magnum  opus,  the  com- 
bined Hebrew  grammar  and  lexicon,  the  words  of  Hor- 
ace, '^Exegi  monumentum  aere  perennius;''  but  his 
greatest  monument  was  his  grand-nephew,  Melanchthon, 
liUther's  warm  friend  and  follower,  whom  he  trained  in 
Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew,  Biblical  exegesis,  logic,  mathe- 
matics, history,  law,  and  medicine.  Melanchthon  made 
such  good  use  of  his  splendid  education  in  his  support 
of  humanism,  in  his  preparation  of  text-books,  and  in 
his  organization  of  schools  that  by  common  consent, 
then  and  since,  he  has  been  known  as  Germanice  prce- 
ceptor.^"^ 

Protestantism,  as  Professor  Henderson  truly  says, 

"Drane,  op.  cit.,  pp.  708  and  713,  "The  establishment  of  the  Jesuit 
CJolleges  poured  a  flood  of  light  on  the  whole  subject  of  educational  re- 
form." 

"  "The  Reformation  represented  by  Luther  -vras  no  less  an  educational 
than  a  religious  movement:  it  awakened  a  sense  of  the  worth  of  the 
individual;  the  longing  for  the  perfection  of  personality  in  its  all- 
sidedness,  intellectual,  moral,  and  physical,  was  aroused.  It  stirred  the 
parental  and  official  conscience  to  educate  children  and  citizens.  Schools, 
which  as  an  institution  were  hitherto  only  a  part  of  the  educational 
system,  and  chiefly  as  a  means  of  training  servants  of  the  Church,  now 
sprang  up  as  a  co-ordinate  agency  in  the  upbuilding  of  humanity." 
"Modern  Educators  and  Their  Ideals,"    Tadasu  Misawa,   Ph.D.,   p.   11. 

"Vide  Graves,  op.  cit.,  p.  155  ff.  "The  advice  of  Melanchthon  was 
sought  personally  or  through  correspondence  by  princes,  magistrates,  and 
educators,  and  his  genius  for  organization,  methods,  and  texts  was  felt 
everywhere  in  his  native  land."     p.  157. 

167 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

**  emphasized  the  importance  of  literacy  for  all,  thus 
urging  the  need  for  the  creation  of  common  schools."^® 
The  Lutherans,  Calvinists,  Pietists,  Moravians,  and 
Methodists  have  been  strong  supporters  of  public  schools, 
and  they  have  founded  and  maintained  a  great  number 
of  most  successful  institutions  of  learning,  including 
most  of  the  famous  colleges  of  America,  where  the  Meth- 
odists especially  have  a  chain  of  higher  institutions  of 
learning  covering  the  entire  country.  As  the  Reformers 
were  much  prejudiced  against  the  Roman  orders,  they 
did  not  commit  to  the  care  of  brotherhoods  the  schools 
which  they  established  and  controlled,  and  work  of  this 
kind  has  been  done  by  Protestant  fraternities  very 
rarely,  and  during  a  comparatively  recent  period.  It 
is  thought  by  some  that  the  time  may  come  when  circum- 
stances will  demand  a  closer  relationship  between  the 
colleges  and  the  brotherhoods  in  Churches  of  the  Refor- 
mation.^^ 

Among  educational  orders  established  during  the 
modern  period  of  Roman  Church  history,  the  Fathers 
of  Somasquo  should  be  included.  Jerome  Aemiliani,  a 
noble  Venetian,  banded  together  these  Clerks  of  St. 
Maieul  **to  instruct  the  ignorant,  and  particularly 
young  persons,  in  the  principles  and  precepts  of  the 
Christian  religion,  and  to  procure  assistance  for  those 
who  were  reduced  to  the  unhappy  condition  of  or- 
phans.'' This  society,  recognized  in  1540,  was  joined 
in  the  same  ministry  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Christian 
Doctrine  of  France  and  Italy,  the  work  in  the  latter 
country  being  instituted  by  Cusani,  a  Milanese  knight, 

**  Henderson,  op.  cit.  "Thus  religion  led  the  way  in  promoting  the 
giving  of  culture  that  ultimately  found  its  main  value  in  worldly  affairs." 
p.  447. 

"  The  Lutherans  have  many  parochial  schools,  and  before  the  above 
sentence  was  printed,  a  beginning  of  elementary  school  work  in  America 
under  Protestant  auspices  had  been  reported  from  another  denominational 
source. 

168 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

and  in  the  former  by  Cesar  de  Bus,  whose  society,  or- 
ganized about  1560,  was  confirmed  in  1592.  Cusani's 
society  was  composed  of  both  priests  and  laymen  who 
confined  their  efforts  to  teaching  the  catechism  to  chil- 
dren on  Sundays  and  to  instructing  ignorant  peasants 
whenever  it  was  possible  to  reach  them.  After  a  time 
the  society  divided  into  two  sections,  "The  Fathers  of 
Christian  Doctrine''  and  the  laymen's  ''Confraternity 
of  Christian  Doctrine,"  which  became  an  arch-confra- 
ternity, and  in  the  modern  period  was  ordered  canoni- 
cally  erected  in  every  parish. 

The  Piarists,  Regular  Clerks  of  the  Scuole  Pie,  date 
from  1597.^^  Their  founder  was  a  Spanish  nobleman, 
Jose  Calasanzio,  who  opened  a  free  school,  soon  attended 
by  seven  hundred  children.  The  order  was  recognized 
officially,  and  it  became  widespread  and  so  popular  as 
to  escape  many  of  the  vicissitudes  which  overtook  other 
Roman  orders.  Italy,  Spain,  Germany,  Poland,  Austria, 
and  Hungary  have  seen  the  Piarist  schools,  which  still 
flourish,  particularly  in  Austria  and  in  Poland,  and 
whose  leaders  at  last  accounts  managed  two  hundred 
educational  institutions.  The  members  of  the  order  take 
the  usual  monastic  vows,  to  w^hich  a  fourth  is  added 
binding  them  to  devote  themselves  to  gratuitous  instruc- 
tion of  youth.  The  habit  and  government  of  the  Piarist 
Fathers  is  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Jesuits,  whom 
they  rival  in  their  activities.^^  The  Oratorians,  espe- 
cially the  Oratory  of  Jesus,  became  about  1611  a  teach- 
ing order.  They  departed  from  the  training  of  the 
Jesuits,  which  they  held  to  be  mechanical  and  preten- 
tious, and  they  came  into  friendly  relations  with  Port 
Royal.  Juilly  was  their  best  kno^vn  college,  and  among 
their  noted  teachers  Lamy  published  a  ''Treatise  on 

20  Alzog,  in  loco,  says  1600,  and  Graves  1617,  the  date  of  recognition. 
»  Graves,  op.  cit.,  p.  228. 

169 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

the  Sciences"  and  Thomassin  produced  *' Methods," 
for  language  study  and  for  the  study  of  philosophy  and 
literature.^^ 

An  institution  which  for  two  centuries  so  labored  as 
to  reflect  high  honor  upon  the  Church  was  established 
about  1618  by  Dom  Benard,  a  monk  of  St.  Vannes.  The 
Congregation  of  St.  Maur^^  was  a  reformation  of  the 
Benedictine  Order,  which  had  become  too  wealthy  and 
worldly.  That  in  the  Northern  countries  the  Benedic- 
tine rule  came  to  seem  to  have  a  joint  authorship  is 
seen  in  Chaucer's  couplet: 

**The  reule  of  seint  Maure  and  of  seint  Benelt, 
Because  that  it  was  olde  and  somdele  streit." 

Benard  enjoined  strict  morality,  and  stimulated  in- 
tellectual pursuits  with  such  success  that  the  literary 
world  was  placed  under  great  indebtedness  to  Maurist 
labors.  The  very  highest  degree  of  scholarship  was  at- 
tained by  members  of  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur, 
and  the  stately  ** Benedictine  Editions''  began  to  ap- 
pear. Vast  stores  of  historical  material  were  gathered 
from  far  and  near.  The  fields  of  ecclesiastical  and  of 
French  history  were  explored,  and  new  books  and  re- 
prints of  old  ones  were  published.  The  most  distin- 
guished monks  acted  as  editors,  and  the  others  sought 
the  sources  or  performed  clerical  duties.  When  an 
author  or  helper  died,  another  took  his  place,  and  the 
work  went  on.  The  rarest  manuscripts  were  bought,  and 
the  publications  issued  were  enriched  by  an  attention 
to  typographical  finish  which  comported  with  the  eru- 
dition displayed  in  the  contents.  Among  the  most  noted 
names  of  Maurist  scholars  of  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries  are  Mabillon,  Martene,  Montfaugon, 
Ruinart,  Durand,  the  brothers  De   Sainte-Marthe,  Le 

22  Graves,   op.  cit.,   pp.  222  and  223. 

^  See  Alston,  "The  Congregation  of  St.  Maur,"  Downside  Review, 
1906. 

170 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

Nourri,  and  Martianay.^*  Mabillon  has  been  considered 
the  father  of  diplomacy,  his  ''De  re  diplomatica"  hav- 
ing been  followed  by  other  Maurist  works  on  the  same 
subject.  Chronology  was  made  a  new  science,  if  it  was 
not  indeed  in  an  exact  sense  created  by  this  order  of 
scholars.  The  *'Art  de  virifer  les  dates,''  by  Dantine 
and  Clemencet,  is  known  to  all  historical  students  and 
is  regarded  as  the  chief  monument  of  French  learning 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  Maurist  works  on  phi- 
lology are  still  unsurpassed.  In  their  publication  of 
original  documents  and  sources  these  indefatigable 
toilers  blazed  the  way  of  modern  historical  research. 
MontfauQon  was  the  founder  of  the  science  of  archae- 
ology. Theology  was  placed  in  lasting  debt  for  the  great 
editions  of  the  Church  fathers  which  the  congregation 
published,  the  text  being  verified  by  most  painstaking 
researches  and  comparisons.  De  Retz  and  Richelieu 
supported  the  order,  which  in  1728  had  one  hundred 
and  eighty  abbeys  and  priories  in  France.  Being  lib- 
eral in  views,  the  Maurists  were  subjects  of  Jesuit  op- 
position. They  gave  sympathy  to  Port  Royal  and  its 
recluses,  and  at  one  time  they  were  accused  of  alliance 
"with  Freemasonry.  Like  the  other  Romanist  orders, 
they  were  dispersed  by  the  Revolution,  the  last  of  the 
old  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur,  Dom  Brial,  being  a 
French  Academician.  A  modern  revival  in  1837  re- 
sulted in  a  weak  imitation  of  this  famous  society  of 
learning  and  of  zeal.^^ 

Two  educational  movements  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, one  Roman  Catholic  and  the  other  Lutheran,  have 
so  much  in  common  that  they  should  be  considered  side 
by  side.    Jansenism  was  the  fruit  of  the  labors  of  Jan- 

2*  McCarthy,  "The  lives  of  the  principal  writers  of  the  Congregation 
of  St.  Maur." 

*"  The  bibliography  of  writings  on  the  Maurists  is  extensive,  including 
the  works  by  Berliere,  Dantier,  Le  Cerf,  Vanel,  and  such  lexicons  as 
Helyot,  op.  cit.,  and  Heimbucher,  "Die  Orden  und  Kongregationen  der 
Katholischen  Kirche." 

171 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

senius,  Bishop  of  Ypres  in  the  Netherlands,  who  was 
an  ardent  admirer  of  St.  Augustine,  and  who  repub- 
lished the  evangelical  views  of  the  father  and  labored 
for  this  doctrine  and  for  greater  practical  piety  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  Jansenist  views  and  methods 
were  in  sharp  contrast  with  those  of  the  Jesuits.  Evils 
in  the  Church,  and  especially  in  the  monasteries,  were 
fearlessly  attacked.  Public  instruction  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  religion  and  of  right  conduct  was  demanded, 
and  the  use  of  the  Bible  in  the  tongue  of  the  people 
was  declared  necessary.  In  France,  Arnauld,^^  Pascal, 
and  Fenelon^^  were  the  most  distinguished  leaders,  and 
the  center  of  the  movement  there  was  Port  Royal,  al- 
ready mentioned,  and  which  was  an  ancient  convent 
near  Paris,  where  devoted  men,  **  Gentlemen  of  Port 
Royal,"  gave  their  lives  to  piety,  to  study,  and  to  the 
instruction  of  youth.  They  produced  good  text-books, 
inventing  the  phonic  system  of  spelling,  and  in  their 
petites  ecoles  they  taught  reformation  not  by  discipline, 
but  by  divine  grace.  They  persisted  in  calling  them- 
selves Catholics,  and  for  a  century  maintained  their 
work  within  the  Church.  They  opposed  penance  and 
confession,  appealed  to  St.  Augustine  and  to  the  Scrip- 
tures as  Luther  had  done,  and  they  declared  that  they 
sought  to  bring  back  the  Church  to  its  original  princi- 
ples. Like  the  Oratorians,  they  followed  Descartes' 
philosophy,  and  they  believed  in  the  development  of 

^  This  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  was  expelled  for  holding  the  views  of 
Chrysostom  and  St.  Augustine,  and  for  fifty  years  he  was  pursued  by 
indomitable  enemies.  For  many  years,  especially  from  1656  to  1668, 
he  was  obliged  to  remain  in  concealment.  "A  strict  search  was  insti- 
tuted, and  he  had  many  narrow  escapes.  'Would  you  like  me  to  tell 
you  where  M.  Arnauld  is?'  asked  a  lady,  when  the  gens-d'armes  were 
searching  for  him  in  every  corner  of  her  house.  'He  is  safely  hidden 
here,'  pointing  to  her  heart.  'Arrest  him  if  you  can.'  "  "French 
Jansenists,"  M.  Tollemache,  p.  115.  This  work  is  a  fine  series  of 
biographies  of  Jansenius  and  his  followers. 

2^  Pascal  and  F^nelon  have  been  oft  considered  in  histories  and  in 
biographies.  An  interesting  brief  account  of  the  latter  in  "Men  of 
Might,"  Benson  &  Tatham,  deserves  notice. 

172 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

reason.  These  educational  and  religious  reformers  pro- 
duced excellent  results,  and  while  they  were  attacked 
by  their  Jesuit  rivals  and  suppressed  by  Louis  XIV, 
who  also  persecuted  the  Protestants,  they  have  been 
highly  praised  by  Cousin,  Vinet,  Sainte-Beuve,  and  by 
the  leading  writers  on  the  history  of  education.^^ 

Pietism  represents  another  religious  educational 
movement  whose  work  was  superintended  by  a  group 
of  distinguished  men  who  were  essentially  a  Christian 
brotherhood.  The  term  Pietist,  which,  like  the  name 
Methodist,  was  originally  one  of  reproach,  represents  an 
effort  to  revive  a  true  spiritual  life  in  the  ''dead  ortho- 
doxy'*  which  had  fallen  upon  the  Protestant  Church. 
Jacob  Spener  was  the  able  and  devout  originator  of 
Pietism.  In  1670,  while  pastor  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
he  opened  in  his  own  house  meetings  for  the  promotion 
of  Biblical  study  and  for  the  culture  of  evangelical  piety. 
At  Dresden,  as  court  preacher,  and  at  Berlin  he  con- 
tinued his  earnest  labors.  What  Spener  sought,  accord- 
ing to  Kurtz,  was  a  ''return  from  scholastic  theology 
to  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  the  living  source  of  all  saving 
knowledge,  a  conversion  of  the  outward  orthodox  con- 
fession into  an  inner  living  theology  of  the  heart,  and 
a  demonstration  thereof  in  true  piety  of  life.''^^  The 
educational  work  of  the  Pietists  was  greatly  advanced 
by  August  Hermann  Francke.  Born  in  Liibeck  in  1663, 
and  educated  at  Gotha,  Erfurt,  and  Kiel,  he  became  a 
famous  scholar  and  a  no  less  ardent  Christian.  His 
lectures  at  Leipsic  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  at- 
tracted attention  for  their  contrast  with  the  cold,  logical 
processes  of  the  universities.  In  1687  Francke  went  to 
Hamburg  and  established  there  a  primary  school,  in 
which  he  discovered  the  emptiness  of  the  ordinary  school 
curriculum  and  the  failure  of  its  discipline,  and  where 

«» Graves,  op,  cit.,  223  ff. 

»  Kurtz,  "History  of  the  Christian  Church." 

173 


CHEISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

he  determined  to  do  something  for  the  improvement  of 
schools  and  of  instruction.  The  University  of  Halle 
was  founded  in  1691,  and  by  the  influence  of  Spener, 
Francke  became  its  professor  of  Greek  and  Oriental 
languages.  There  this  devoted  spirit  became  the  source 
of  a  mighty  work,  educational  and  charitable,  both  in  the 
university,  whose  courses  he  improved  and  whose  stu- 
dents he  elevated  in  moral  tone,  and  also  in  the  com- 
munity, for  whose  culture  in  primary  and  secondary 
education  he  established  valuable  institutions.  Begin- 
ning by  inviting  young  and  old  into  his  own  home,  he 
learned  the  condition  and  needs  of  the  poor,  and  he 
deprived  himself  of  comforts  in  order  to  supply  their 
wants.  Books  were  bought,  teachers  were  secured;  a 
pedagogium  for  the  higher  classes  was  established, 
which,  with  its  museum,  chemical  and  physical  labora- 
tories, and  botanical  garden,  marked  a  new  departure 
in  secondary  education.  A  Latin  school,  a  German 
burgher  school,  an  orphan  house,  a  free  table  with  six 
hundred  and  fifteen  indigent  scholars,  with  other  agen- 
cies for  popular  education,  were  also  set  at  work.  Count 
Zinzendorf,  a  founder  of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  as 
will  be  seen  later,  was  a  pupil  of  Francke 's,  who  with 
all  his  passion  for  knowledge  and  for  its  impartation  to 
others,  was  most  zealous  for  piety.  *'A  grain  of  living 
faith, *'  he  said,  ''is  worth  more  than  a  pound  of  his- 
toric knowledge;  and  a  drop  of  love,  than  an  ocean  of 
science."  Yet  Francke  was  not  too  ascetic  to  realize 
that  youth  needs  pleasure  and  recreation,  which,  in  due 
proportions  of  physical  exercise  and  of  mechanical  em- 
ployments, he  provided.  At  the  time  of  his  death,  in 
1727,  he  had  in  his  care  four  thousand  two  hundred  and 
seventy-three  teachers,  pupils,  and  dependents.  The 
Pietists  as  a  class  were  most  religious  and  amiable  spir- 
its. They  received  much  persecution,  but  they  wrought 
lasting  good  to  the  Church  of  Christ.     Their  teachers 

174 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

and  ministers  scattered  over  all  Europe,  everywhere 
disseminating  gospel  truth ;  their  missions  in  India  were 
for  a  century  of  much  value,  and  their  printing-pressea 
sent  forth  several  millions  of  copies  of  the  Bible  and 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  permanent  influence  of 
Pietism  is  found  not  only  in  the  life  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church,  in  which  body  all  save  the  Moravians 
remained,  but  to  a  very  great  degree  in  the  religious 
and  educational  interest  and  culture  of  the  Church  uni- 
versal.^® 

The  Sulpicians,  a  Romanist  priestly  order  established 
by  Abbe  Olier  at  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris, 
1642,  devoted  itself  to  theological  instruction  and  has 
produced  several  distinguished  theologians.  The  order 
is  represented  in  America.  The  educational  work  of  the 
Bethlehemites  has  already  been  mentioned.^^  Educa- 
tional work  for  boys,  attempted  during  this  period  by- 
Fourier  and  Barre,  failed,  and  the  work  of  Demia,  who 
established  the  Brethren  of  St.  Charles  at  Lyons  in 
1666,  did  not  spread. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  oc- 
curred the  organization  of  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools.^2  In  Rheims,  France,  a  canon  of  the  metro- 
politan Church,  becoming  much  exercised  over  the  lam- 
entable disorders  among  the  multitudes,  and  which 
were  due  to  their  ignorance  of  the  elements  of  knowl- 
edge and  of  the  principles  of  religion,  in  1680  formed 
a  society  of  religious  teachers,  approved  by  the  Church, 

«>  Professor  A.  C.  McGifFert,  "Protestant  Thought  Before  Kant,"  p. 
161,  thus  sums  up  the  work  of  the  Pietistic  movement:  "Of  its  im- 
mense services  in  the  field  of  charitable  and  religious  work — the  founda- 
tion of  orphan  asylums,  the  education  of  the  young,  the  care  of  the 
poor,  the  promotion  of  foreign  missions — it  is  impossible  to  speak  here. 
Its  great  influence  was  before  long  undermined  by  Rationalism,  but  it 
never  ceased  to  make  itself  felt,  and  it  became  one  of  the  factors  in 
the  revival  of  religion  and  the  reconstruction  of  theology  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century." 

81  Supra,  p.  132. 

«2  Better  known  as  Christian  Brothers,  Vide  Wilson,  "The  Christian 
Brothers,"  chap.  vii. 

175 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

but  not  taking  holy  orders,  and  which  is  known  as  the 
Institute  of  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.  This 
work  of  Jean  Baptiste  de  La  Salle^*  enlists  those  who 
seek  their  own  sanctifieation  and  the  Christian  educa- 
tion of  youth.  The  direction  of  any  male  educational 
institution  is  undertaken,  provided  Latin  be  excluded. 
The  principal  object  is,  however,  to  provide  elementary 
gratuitous  schools,  especially  for  the  children  of  artisans. 
La  Salle  found  that  the  teachers  of  his  time,  if 
skilled,  abandoned  the  children  of  the  poor  for  the 
greater  compensation  to  be  gained  by  instruction  in 
wealthy  families.  He  therefore  attempted  the  work  of 
furnishing  instructors  both  qualified  and  unselfish.  In 
this  task  he  met  with  greater  difficulties  than  he  had 
expected.  In  1688  the  cure  of  Saint  Sulpice  invited  him 
to  Paris  to  build  a  school  in  that  parish.  In  1691  he 
established  a  house  at  Vaugirard.  In  1698  James  II 
of  England  entrusted  to  him  the  training  of  fifty  Irish 
boys  of  good  family.  A  year  later  he  established  on 
Sundays  the  first  technical  school  of  Europe,  each  ses- 
sion closing  with  religious  instruction.  In  1705  a  large 
institution  was  opened  in  Rouen.  When  La  Salle  died, 
in  1719,  he  had  two  hundred  and  forty-two  brothers  and 
nine  thousand  pupils.  Pedagogy  is  said  to  owe  to  him 
the  transformation  in  common  schools  from  individual 
to  class  instruction,  a  method  which  had  been  previously 
employed  only  in  universities  and  locally  by  Fourier. 
He  also  followed  the  short-lived  example  of  Port  Royal 
in  teaching  his  pupils  to  read  in  the  vernacular  instead 
of  in  Latin,  Normal  schools  for  the  first  time  made 
possible  for  elementry  schools  teachers  of  ability  and  of 
training.^* 

»^For  "Life,"   Bee  Ravetet,  Paris,  1888. 

**  "While  the  Jesuits  and  Christian  Brothers  were  the  first  educators 
in  history  to  undertake  the  training  of  teachers,  and  their  work  was 
most  thoroughly  done,  both  orders  tended  to  preserve  the  most  formal 
and  stereotyped  methods."      Graves,   op.   cit.,  in  loc. 

176 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

The  Institute  of  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  is 
governed  by  a  superior  general  elected  for  life,  and 
whose  assistants  are  twelve  in  number.  Members  of  the 
society  are  usually  admitted  at  from  sixteen  to  eighteen 
years  of  age,  and  they  are  trained  first  of  all  to  religious 
fervor.  They  follow  the  methods  of  their  founder  as 
contained  in  his  **Conduite  des  ecoles.*'^^  During  the 
eighteenth  century  the  congregation  was  little  known 
outside  of  France,  having  only  a  few  institutions  in 
Italy  and  elsewhere.  During  the  French  Revolution,  as 
the  members  refused  to  take  the  civic  oath,  the  schools 
were  broken  up.  Salomon,  secretary  general,  was  put 
to  death  in  Paris,  as  were  several  of  the  brothers  else- 
where. In  1798  the  directory  expelled  the  Italian  mem- 
bers, and  the  institute,  reduced  to  twenty  members  wear- 
ing the  habit,  seemed  ruined.  "When  Napoleon  signed 
the  concordat  with  Pius  VII,  the  Institute  of  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools  came  again  to  life  and  soon 
flourished.  By  1821  nine  hundred  and  fifty  brothers 
and  novices,  three  hundred  and  ten  schools,  and  fifty 
thousand  pupils  were  numbered,  and  the  schools  spread 
to  many  countries,  including  Belgium,  China,  India, 
Canada,  and  the  United  States.  In  1874,  at  the  close 
of  the  generalship  of  Brother  Philippe,  the  houses  of 
the  institute  were  eleven  hundred  and  forty-nine,  and 
the  pupils  in  all  parts  of  the  world  were  said  to  be  three 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand.  During  the  generalship 
of  Brother  Joseph,  which  closed  in  1897,  great  care  was 
given  to  developing  the  institute  in  works  of  Christian 
perseverance.  Patronages,  clubs,  alumni  associations, 
boarding-houses,  and  spiritual  retreats  were  developed 
and  became  prosperous.  National  federations  and  an- 
nual meetings  of  alumni  associations  are  found  in  Bel- 
gium and  in  the  United  States.    In  the  early  years  of 

« First    published    at    Avignon,    1720.       "Management    of    Christian 
Schools,"   New  York,  1893. 

12  177 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

the  twentieth  century  the  legislation  which  abolished  re- 
ligious teaching  drove  the  institute  out  of  France,  but 
it  has  spread  almost  everywhere  else.  The  Brothers  of 
the  Christian  Schools  are  too  closely  engaged  in  teaching 
to  produce  much  literature,  save  text-books  which  they 
have  published  in  many  languages.^® 

It  seems  appropriate  in  this  place  to  mention  a  simi- 
larly named  institute  having  the  same  purpose  as  the 
society  just  considered,  the  Christian  Brothers  of  Ire- 
land, established  in  1802  by  a  merchant  of  Waterford, 
Edmund  Ignatius  Rice,  and  which  in  1820  became  the 
first  Irish  order  of  men  approved  by  charter  from  Rome. 
Mr.  Rice  was  distressed  by  the  wretched  state  of  Cath- 
olic boys  in  Waterford,  and,  leaving  his  business,  he  de- 
voted his  whole  fortune  and  life  to  education.  He  was 
soon  joined  by  others,  some  of  whom  made  similar  sacri- 
fices. Primary,  secondary,  and  technical  education  were 
undertaken,  and  the  order  spread  not  only  in  Ireland, 
but  in  many  other  countries,  including  in  1906  the 
United  States.  Orphanages  and  schools  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb  constitute  one  of  the  specialties.  The  superior 
general  resides  in  Dublin. 

To  resume  the  main  channel  of  review,  in  1705  be- 
gan the  work  of  the  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel,  the  con- 
gregation of  Louis-Marie  Grignon  de  Montfort,  whose 
purpose  is  Christian  education  of  the  young,  and  the 
establishment  and  care  of  deaf,  dumb,  blind,  and  or- 
phan asylums.  The  mother-house  was  originally  at  La 
Vendee,  but  when  the  teaching  orders  were  driven  from 
France  in  1905,  Peruwelz,  Belgium,  became  the  center. 
The  American  beginning  occurred  in  1888  in  Canada, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Sulpician  Fathers.    The  order 

'« Graves,  op.  cit.,  pp.  230-232.  This  author  says  that  the  Christian 
Brothers'  Schools  are  "predominantly  ascetic  in  their  tone.  There  is, 
nevertheless,  much  to  admire  in  the  history  and  system  of  the  Christian 
Brothers,  and  in  the  wonderful  work  which  they  have  done  for  elementary- 
education  among  the  Catholics." 

178 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

is  also  represented  in  the  United  States.  In  1906  one 
hundred  and  seventy  schools  and  colleges,  eight  asylums 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  four  for  the  blind,  and  several 
orphanages  were  reported  by  the  Institut  des  Freres  de 
St.  Gabriel. 

Of  considerable  interest  to  the  student  of  educational 
orders  are  the  Mechitarists,  who  are  the  Benedictines  of 
Armenia,  organized  in  1712  by  one  Mechitar.^^  They 
are  not  classed  among  Benedictine  congregations,  though 
recognized  by  Clement  XI  under  that  rule,  but  they  are 
independent.  Missionaries,  writers,  and  teachers,  these 
monks  devote  themselves  to  priestly  ministry,  to  the 
training  of  youth,  and  to  the  publication  of  Armenian 
literature.  They  take  oath  **to  work  together  in  har- 
mony so  that  they  may  the  better  win  the  schismatics 
back  to  God."  The  parent  abbey  is  St.  Lazaro,  Venice. 
The  houses  are  in  Italy,  Austro-Hungary,  Russia,  Persia, 
and  Turkey.  Mechitar  taught  his  followers  to  study 
early  Armenian  writings  and  to  use  the  printing-press. 
He  published  in  1734  an  Armenian  Bible,  in  1737  a 
** Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,''  and  later, 
in  the  Armenian  tongue,  a  grammar,  a  dictionary,  a 
catechism,  and  other  works.  Valuable  additions  to  gen- 
eral knowledge  have  been  made  by  the  Mechitarists  in 
recovering  in  ancient  Armenian  translations  valuable 
lost  works  of  Fathers  of  the  Church,  among  them  the 
**  Letters  of  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  several  works  of 
St.  Ephrem,  the  Syrian,  and  a  very  valuable  edition  of 
Eusebius.^^ 

The  Congregation  of  the  Brothers  of  Charity,  founded 
in  Belgium  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  by  Canon 
Pierre  J.  Triest  of  Ghent,  not  only  engaged  in  humani- 
tarian works,  but  established  and  maintains  a  consider- 

'^See  "Tschamtschenanz,"  Venice.  The  lives  of  Mechitar,  as  well 
as  this  history  of  the  order  are  Venetian,   save  for  Newman  of  Leipzig. 

ssillgen's  "Hist,  and  Theolog.  Review,"  1841,  p.  143  et  seq. 

179 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

able  number  of  schools.  These  institutions  are  for  de- 
fectives, for  dependents,  for  incorrigibles,  and  for  indus- 
trial and  scientific  instruction.  The  superior  general  of 
the  order  resides  in  Ghent.  The  principal  American  es- 
tablishments are  in  Montreal  and  in  Boston.  A  second 
Order  of  St.  Joseph,^^  founded  in  Grammont,  Belgium, 
in  1817  by  Canon  von  Crombrugghe,  devoted  itself  to 
improving  the  education  of  children  of  the  industrial 
and  commercial  classes. 

Three  Roman  Catholic  societies  named  for  the  Virgin 
Mary  are^  interested  in  the  cause  of  intellectual  and  re- 
ligious training.  These  societies  were  established  almost 
simultaneously.  The  Marist  Fathers  at  Lyons,  1816, 
the  Marianists  at  Bordeaux  in  1817,  and  the  Marist 
School  Brothers  in  the  same  year  in  Central  France. 
The  Marist  Fathers  represent  the  work  of  seminarians 
who  at  the  Restoration  of  1815  saw  an  opportunity  for 
religion.  The  real  founder  was  J.  C.  M.  Colin,  and  the 
work  undertaken  was  the  establishment  of  missions,  do- 
mestic and  foreign,  and  colleges  and  seminaries  for 
clerical  training.  Priests  and  lay-brothers,  who  after 
a  long  probation  take  priestly  vows  but  care  for  tempo- 
ralities, make  up  the  order.  The  general  officers  live  in 
Rome.  A  vow  of  special  devotion  to  Mary  is  added  to 
the  three  monastic  obligations.  The  Marist  Fathers 
have  done  their  best  mission  work  in  Oceanica,  where 
they  have  also  contributed  to  science  by  describing  the 
languages,  fauna,  and  flora  of  the  islands  where  they 
labor.  In  America  they  are  represented  in  eleven  States 
and  in  Mexico.  Their  training-houses  are  in  Washing- 
ton, and  their  four  American  colleges  are  Jefferson, 
La. ;  St.  Marys,  Me. ;  All  Hallows',  Utah,  and  the  Georgia 
Marist  College. 

The  Marianists,  or  Society  of  Mary,  of  Paris,  were 
founded  by  William  Joseph  Chaminade.     Clerical  and 

^Vide  supra,  pp.  153,  154, 

180 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

lay  members  of  this  order  take  the  simple  vows,  and  at 
their  final  profession  they  add  a  vow  of  stability  of 
service  to  the  Virgin.  The  energies  of  the  society  are 
given  to  educational  undertakings  of  every  kind.  Head- 
quarters are  in  Nivelles,  Belgium.  In  the  United  States, 
where  the  Marianists  were  introduced  in  18^,  are  over 
fifty  establishments,  of  which  the  majority  are  parochial 
schools,  and  the  others  are  normal  schools,  high  schools, 
and  colleges.** 

In  1910  the  Little  Brothers  of  Mary,  or  Marist  School 
Brothers,  had  grown  to  number  six  thousand  members, 
pursuing  educational  labors  in  most  parts  of  the  world. 
Their  work  was  begun  by  Champagnat,  who  worked 
zealously  for  primary  education,  and  who  wrote  manuals 
of  pedagogic  method.  When  the  founder  died,  in  1840, 
he  had  three  hundred  followers  and  forty-eight  schools. 
The  Marist  Brothers  of  North  America  were  incorpo- 
rated under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1885. 
Not  only  primary,  but  boarding-schools,  academies,  in- 
dustrial schools,  homes  for  working  boys,  and  orphan- 
ages are  conducted.  These  Brothers  are  not  ecclesiastics, 
and  never  accept  postulants  who  aspire  to  the  priest- 
hood. At  the  same  date  which  witnessed  these  begin- 
nings, 1817,  Mennais  founded  at  Saint-Briens,  France, 
a  congregation  called  Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction, 
which  arose  from  the  restriction  imposed  by  John  Bap- 
tiste  de  la  Salle,  who  forbade  Brothers  to  go  on  a  mis- 
sion singly.  The  first  novices  of  the  new  society  were 
trained  by  the  Christian  Brothers,  whose  rules  they  fol- 
lowed in  the  main.  From  France  the  society  spread  to 
England,  Africa,  Asia,  Oceanica,  and  America.  In  1903 
the  congregation  conducted  four  hundred  and  twenty 
educational  institutions,  including  trade,  boarding,  and 
agricultural  schools  and  orphanages. 

The  modern  policy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 

"Alzog,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  945. 

181 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

has  turned  the  attention  of  the  orders  very  largely; 
to  the  field  of  labor  which  is  under  consideration.  Older 
societies  have  adapted  their  efforts  to  the  demand  for 
education  under  Church  control,  and  new  teaching  or- 
ders have  sprung  up,  having  very  similar  ideals  and 
displaying  marked  devotion  to  their  work.  The  Con- 
gregation of  Holy  Cross,  a  band  of  priests  aud  lay 
brothers,  represents  a  union  by  Rome  of  the  Brothers 
of  St.  Joseph,  founded  by  Dujarie,  pastor  at  Ruille, 
France,  in  1820,  with  the  Auxiliary  Priests  of  Le  Maris, 
established  in  1835.  The  object  which  inspired  Dujarie 
was  the  re-establishment  of  the  Christian  schools,  then 
almost  destroyed  by  the  Revolution.  At  first  only 
Brothers  were  admitted,  but  after  the  consolidation  can- 
didates for  the  priesthood  were  received.  The  members 
of  the  Religious  Order  of  Holy  Cross  declare  it  to  be 
their  essential  purpose  to  seek  the  perfection  of  the  mem- 
bers by  the  evangelical  counsels,  the  sanctification  of 
their  fellow-inen  by  preaching  the  Divine  Word,  espe- 
cially in  country  places  and  in  foreign  missions,  and  the 
instruction  and  Christian  education  of  youth.  The  so- 
ciety undertook  a  mission  in  Algeria,  but  did  not  re- 
main there  after  the  schools  were  laicized.  A  more  suc- 
cessful work  exists  in  Eastern  Bengal.  In  Canada  the 
congregation  has  many  schools,  but  its  chief  work  is 
in  the  United  States,  where  its  story  is  largely  that  of 
a  great  university  and  of  the  many  schools  and  colleges 
which  have  sprung  out  of  this  successful  institution. 
In  1841  Father  Edward  Sorin,  who  later  became  the 
head  of  the  society  throughout  the  world,  went  into  an 
almost  primeval  forest  in  Northern  Indiana  and  estab- 
lished Notre  Dame,  now  one  of  the  strongest  of  Catholic 
educational  institutions  and  a  center  of  the  literary  and 
propagandist  activity  of  the  Church  which  it  represents. 
To  1820,  the  year  of  the  origin  of  the  Congregation  of 

182 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

Holy  Cross,  belongs  also  the  beginning  of  the  Brothers 
of  the  SaQred  Heart,  founded  by  Pere  Andre  Coindre 
at  Lyons,  France,  for  self-sanctification  and  for  the 
Christian  education  of  youth. 

The  Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of  Lourdes,  established  by 
Glorieux  in  1830,  seek  not  only  the  Christian  education 
of  the  young,  but  the  care  of  orphans  and  of  the  sick 
and  aged.  The  Clerics  of  Saint  Viateur  were  an  edu- 
cational community  established  by  Father  Querbes  at 
Youries,  near  Lyons,  in  1835,  and  now  somewhat  widely 
represented,  especially  in  Canada  and  in  the  United 
States.  The  Xaverian  Brothers  date  from  1839,  when 
they  were  organized  at  Bruges,  Belgium,  by  Theodore 
James  Ryken.  The  founder  purposed  *'a  congregation 
of  men  who  would  willingly  sacrifice  their  lives  to  the 
Christian  education  of  youth."  This  society  was  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  in  1854  at  Louisville,  Ky., 
and  is  represented  at  Baltimore  and  elsewhere. 

Among  other  Romanist  orders  are  the  Brothers  of  the 
Holy  Infancy,  1853,  which  cares  for  and  educates  chil- 
dren, including  juvenile  criminals,  and  the  Salesian  Fa- 
thers, a  society  of  priests  and  lay-brothers  founded  by 
Don  Bosco  at  Turin,  1864,  for  the  care  and  education 
of  homeless  boys,  rescued  from  the  streets,  and  for  other 
educational  work. 

The  efforts  of  the  Roman  educational  orders  have 
been  largely  given  to  the  training  of  men  and  boys. 
*'As  compared  with  the  Protestants,  little  was  done  by 
the  Catholics  for  any  stage  of  the  education  of  women. '  '*^ 
Protestant  education  has  been  confined  almost  exclu- 
sively to  adult  pupils ;  colleges  and  relatively  weak  sec- 
ondary schools  absorbing  the  attention  of  the  Church, 
and  elementary  education  being  left  to  the  State.  While 
the  Protestant  brotherhoods,  as  was  previously  stated, 

*i  Graves,  op.  cit.,  p.  236. 

183 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

have  had  little  relation  to  learning,  the  Roman  orders 
have  been  the  leading  educators  of  their  Church  and 
have  established  institutions  of  every  grade. 

"With  reference  to  the  position  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  on  the  general  subject  of  education,  Pro- 
fessor E.  A.  Pace  makes  these  points:  *'l.  Intellectual 
education  must  not  be  separated  from  moral  and  re- 
ligious education.  To  impart  knowledge  or  to  develop 
mental  efficiency  without  building  up  moral  character 
is  not  only  contrary  to  psychological  law,  but  is  also 
fatal  both  to  the  individual  and  to  society.  2.  Religion 
should  be  an  essential  part  of  education;  it  should  form 
not  merely  an  adjunct  to  instruction  in  other  subjects, 
but  the  center  about  which  these  are  grouped  and  the 
spirit  by  which  they  are  permeated.  3.  Sound  moral 
instruction  is  impossible  apart  from  religious  education. 
4.  An  education  which  unites  the  intellectual,  moral, 
and  religious  elements  is  the  best  safeguard  for  the  home. 
It  also  ensures  the  performance  of  social  duties.  5.  Far 
from  lessening  the  need  of  moral  and  religious  training, 
the  advance  in  educational  methods  rather  emphasizes 
that  need.  6.  Catholic  parents  are  bound  in  conscience 
to  provide  for  the  education  of  their  children,  either  at 
home  or  in  schools  of  the  right  sort.''*^  After  making 
these  statements  the  author  of  them  adds,  "That  the 
need  of  moral  and  religious  education  has  impressed  the 
minds  of  non-Catholics  also,  is  evident  from  the  move- 
ment inaugurated  in  1903  by  the  Religious  Education 
Association  in  the  United  States."  With  all  of  the 
propositions  made  above,  few,  if  any,  Protestant  schol- 
ars would  disagree.  The  difference  between  the  two 
great  Western  branches  of  the  Christian  Church  with 
reference  to  education  is  in  the  matter  of  authority,  and 
of  its  relation  to  the  development  of  the  individual.    An 

*'The  above  are  Professor  Pace's  own  words,  but  the  points  are 
enlarged  upon  with  particular  illustrations,  in  the  author's  article,  "Edu- 
cation in  General,"   "Catholic  Encyclopedia." 

184 


EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

enforced  obedience  to  dogma  and  discipline,  which,  Pro- 
fessor Graves  declares,  always  marred  the  Jesuit  type 
of  education  and  prevented  its  highest  attainments,*^  is 
repugnant  to  the  Protestant  mind,  which  also  seems  to 
prefer  a  public  school  education  of  young  children  in 
moral  and  religious  precepts  without  sectarian  bias,  but 
which,  in  view  of  the  exclusion  of  all  Christian  elements 
from  the  instruction  of  the  secular  schools,  shows  signs 
of  great  restlessness  and  a  tendency  to  insist  upon  some 
better  system  of  culture  which  shall  include  religion. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  affirm  that  nothing  except  the  re- 
introduction  of  the  Bible  and  of  Christian  precepts  into 
the  public  schools  will  save  them  from  the  competition 
of  Protestant  as  well  as  of  Roman  parochial  schools.  In 
the  settlement  of  this  question  the  Christian  brother- 
hoods are  likely  to  have  a  place  of  great  prominence. 

*»  Op.  cit.,  p.  220. 


185 


XII 

MODERN  ROMAN  LAY  BROTHERHOODS 

POLITICAL.  BENEVOLENT,  TEMPERANCE.  AND 
PAROCHIAL  SOCIETIES 

In  the  Roman  Church  the  hierarchy  and  the  priesthood 
from  ancient  times  very  largely  constituted  the  Church, 
so  far  as  its  government  and  discipline  were  concerned. 
The  wealth  of  prelates  and  of  Roman  colleges  and  orders 
contributed  in  a  way  to  independence  of  the  laity,  and 
the  high  education  of  the  priesthood,  which  absorbed 
most  of  the  ablest  men  of  the  Church,  tended  to  the  same 
end.  It  has  been  seen  that  at  the  beginning  most  of  the 
Roman  orders  admitted  lay  brothers,  who  comprised  the 
greater  part  of  the  members,  all  of  whom  performed 
manual  labor.  The  majority  of  St.  Benedict's  monks 
were  not  clerics,  and  the  only  discrimination  against  any 
was  that  some  had  taken  the  habit  too  late  in  life  or 
lacked  the  necessary  talent  to  become  ohlati  or  nutriti. 
Later,  about  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  the  scho- 
lastic studies  were  increased,  and  the  proportion  of 
clerics  became  greater,  when  those  *' religious"  classed 
as  lay  brothers  not  only  were  given  the  work  which  some 
one  must  do,  but  came  to  be  "occupied  solely  with 
manual  labor  and  with  the  secular  affairs  of  a  monastery 
or  friary."^  The  inferiority  of  the  lay  brothers  is  in- 
dicated in  the  titles  at  various  times  applied  to  them: 
fratres  conversi,  laid  harhati,  illiterati,  or  idiotcB.  Even 
to  the  present  time  the  lay  brothers  who  are  to  be  found 
in  the  majority  of  Catholic  religious  orders  are  **  mostly 
pious  and  laborious  persons  usually  drawn  from  the 

^Leslie    Alexander    St.    L.    Toke,    B.  A.,    "Lay    Brothers,"     "Cath. 
Encycl. ' ' 

186 


MODERN  ROMAN  LAY  BROTHERHOODS 

working-classes  of  the  community,  who,  while  unable  to 
attain  to  the  degree  of  learning  requisite  for  holy  orders, 
are  yet  drawn  to  the  religious  life  and  able  to  contribute 
by  their  toil  to  the  prosperity  of  the  house  or  order  of 
their  vocation.  "^  rp^e  lay  brothers  are  distinguished 
from  choir  brothers  by  the  garb  which  they  wear,  as 
well  as  by  the  life  which  they  must  lead. 

From  the  eighth  century  onward,  for  at  least  three 
centuries  a  number  of  laymen  were  powerful  in  the 
Church  of  Rome  by  reason  of  grants  of  Church  lands 
and  abbeys  made  to  them  by  monarchs  of  whom  they 
were  the  ofttimes  corrupt  favorites.  This  practice  be- 
came a  great  evil  and  was  one  of  the  causes  of  that  cor- 
ruption of  the  monastic  orders  which  frustrated  the 
plans  and  destroyed  the  good  works  of  saintly  founders. 
The  investitures  conflict  finally  brought  about  an  end 
to  this  abuse.  In  spite  of  their  inferior  position  lay 
brothers  often  came  by  reason  of  special  ability  and 
piety  to  secure  great  influence  in  the  Church,  and  the 
laity  outside  of  the  orders  exercised  a  power  dependent 
altogether  upon  the  condition  of  the  society  of  which 
they  were  a  part  and  of  the  circumstances  which  grew 
out  of  the  needs  of  the  Church. 

Several  political  organizations  of  Catholics,  largely 
of  laymen,  have  existed  at  various  periods.  In  1538  the 
Roman  Catholic  princes  of  Germany  formed  a  ''Holy 
League  of  Nuremberg"  to  combat  the  designs  of  the 
princes  who  had  formed  a  Protestant  or  Schmalkaldic 
League.  The  Catholic  party  was  composed  of  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V,  Dukes  William  and  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
George  of  Saxony,  and  Erich  and  Henry  of  Brunswick, 
who  with  the  Archbishops  of  Mayence  and  Salzburg 
formed  a  treaty  for  the  defense  of  the  Catholic  faith, 
which  confederacy  was  to  last  eleven  years.  The  truce 
of  1539,  however,  rendered  the  combination  unneces- 

2  Ibid. 

187 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

sary.^  The  Guises  in  France,  Philip  II  of  Spain,  the 
pope,  the  monks,  and  the  French  Parliament  in  1576 
formed  another  Holy  League  against  Henry  III  of 
France  and  the  Protestants.  The  object  was  the  over- 
throw of  the  Huguenots.  A  war  commenced  in  1577 
was  soon  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Bergerac ;  but  when  the 
Protestant  Henry  of  Navarre,  later  Henry  IV,  became 
heir  to  the  throne  in  1584,  the  league  again  sprang  into 
life.  The  active  part  taken  by  the  States,  especially  the 
sixteen  districts  of  Paris,  led  the  league  to  be  sometimes 
called  Ligue  des  Seize,  though  this  was  really  a  sepa- 
rate organization.  The  "War  of  the  Henrys  was  the 
final  outcome  of  the  activities  of  the  league.  Henry 
of  Guise  and  Henry  III  were  both  murdered,  and  strife 
continued  until  Henry  IV,  in  order  to  gain  the  throne, 
professed,  in  1593,  the  Catholic  faith.  "When  Henry 
was  absolved  by  the  pope,  the  Catholic  party  joined  the 
royal  standard  and  the  league  ceased  to  exist.*  Henry, 
however,  in  1598,  by  the  edict  of  Nantes,  granted  entire 
religious  liberty  and  political  rights  to  the  Protestants.' 
Another  league  was  formed  in  Germany  in  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

About  1794,  succeeding  earlier  societies  of  the  same 
type,  known  as  Whiteboys,  Threshers,  and  by  other 
titles,  an  organization  of  Catholic  men  was  formed  in 
Ireland  which  was  called  the  Defenders,  or  Ribbonmen, 
and  which  sought  politically  to  defend  and  to  further 
the  purposes  of  Catholicism.  This  society  gave  rise  on 
the  Protestant  side  to  the  * ' Peep-of-Day  Boys,'*  after- 
Wards  the  rich  and  powerful  Orange  society,  known  as 
Orangemen.  These  organizations  had  many  turbulent 
and  disgraceful  combats.  The  Catholic  Relief  Act  of 
1828  aroused  much  animosity  between  them,  and  in  1828 

•  "Church  History  Dixring  the  Reformation,"  Hardwick,  p.  63  ff. 
•Mignet,    Paris,    1829,    published    a    "Hist,    de    la    Ligue,"    in    five 
volumes.     See  also  De  Felice's  "Hist.  Protestantism  in  France." 
*WiUert,  "Henry  of  Navarre  and  the  Huguenots  of  France." 

188 


MODERN  ROMAN  LAY  BROTHERHOODS 

and  1829  bloody  conflicts  took  place  in  Clare,  Armagli, 
and  Fermanagh  Counties,  Ireland,  which  contests  have 
been  continued  in  later  days  and  in  various  forms,  in- 
cluding a  riot  in  New  York  in  1871,  and  in  Belfast  in 
1880  and  in  1886.  Agitation  was  renewed  in  1912.  The 
history  of  this  movement  contains  much  good  proof  that 
unregenerate  hearts  may  masquerade  in  the  guise  of  re- 
ligion, which  should  cause  Christian  men  to  reflect  upon 
the  peril  of  Christianity  when  it  becomes  political  in  its 
type  and  methods.^ 

Within  the  period  comprised  by  the  nineleentK  and 
by  the  early  part  of  the  twentieth  centuries  Catholic  lay 
brotherhoods  were  formed  for  the  purposes  of  religion 
and  philanthropy,  and  they  obtained  far  greater  free- 
dom and  power  than  were  possessed  by  their  predeces- 
sors in  any  age.  By  far  the  greatest  of  these  lay  asso- 
ciations was  originated  in  1833,  the  Society  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul,  branches  of  which  were  established  in  al- 
most all  parts  of  the  world.  The  founder  was  Frederic 
Oznaman,  who  with  six  students  of  the  Sorbonne  began 
a  charitable  work  which  originated  in  the  pity  of  the 
leader  for  the  poverty  and  suffering  which  he  saw  about 
him  in  Paris.^  Greatly  moved,  *'he  called  together  a 
group  of  friends,  who  at  their  first  meeting  determined 
that  their  work  should  be  the  service  of  God  in  the 
persons  of  the  poor,  whom  they  were  to  visit  at  their 
own  dwellings  and  assist  by  every  means  in  their 
power."®  Another  motive  which  entered  into  the  found- 

•See  Lecky,  "History  of  England,"  in  loc. 

^A  sketch  of  the  career  of  Oznaman,  in  the  magazine  known  as 
"The  Month,"  January,  1873,  represents  its  subject  as  exclaiming, 
"I  dislike  Paris  because  there  is  no  life  in  it,  no  faith,  no  love;  it  is 
like  a  huge  corpse  to  which  I  am  attached  while  still  young  and  full 
of  life — its  coldness  freezes  me,  and  its  corruption  is  killing  nie. 
"The  Biography  of  Frederick  Oznaman,"  K.  O'Meara,  was  published  m 
Edinburgh. 

8  "The  Congregationalist  and  Christian  at  Work,"  in  1908  published 
an  appreciation  of  thia  work  containing  this  sentence,  and  saying,  Out 
of  that  little  meeting  grew  a  great  society  with  thousands  of  laymea 
enlisted  in  this  most  Christian  work." 

189 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

ing  of  this  society  was  to  give  answer  to  a  taunt  of  the 
Saint  Simonians  that  Catholicism  was  dead,  that  tiie 
young  men  who  advocated  Roman  Catholic  doctrines 
were  talkers  only,  and  not  workers.  Oznaman  was  re- 
solved that  his  organization  should  occupy  itself  '^not 
with  discussions,  but  with  good  works."  ** They  would 
make  their  own  religion  truer  and  purer,  while  they 
confuted  their  adversaries,  by  the  devotion  of  them- 
selves to  the  poor.''*  This  service  was  at  once  under- 
taken, and  after  a  time,  in  addition  to  direct  personal 
aid,  nurseries,  libraries,  orphanages,  schools,  and  em- 
ployment bureaus  were  established  and  maintained. 
The  instruction  of  poor  children  and  the  distribution 
of  moral  and  religious  books  were  undertaken.  Summer 
country  homes  were  secured  for  city  children  of  the 
working  classes.  Jails  and  almshouses  were  visited. 
Boys'  clubs  were  inaugurated  in  various  cities,  and 
homes  for  the  homeless  were  obtained. 

The  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  grew  from  the 
original  eight  members  until  in  1905  it  was  estimated 
to  have  throughout  the  world  six  thousand  conferences, 
with  two  hundred  thousand  members,  half  of  whom 
were  honorary.  In  each  city  in  which  the  society  is  rep- 
resented individual  conferences  are  usually  combined  to 
form  a  particular  conference,  and  the  conferences  of  a 
large  locality  or  country  federate  to  form  a  central  or 
superior  council,  all  superior  councils  being  represented 
in  the  council-general  in  Paris.  Auxiliary  societies  of 
women  assist  in  the  regular  work  of  the  Society  of  Saint 
Vincent  de  Paul,  which  is  thought  by  many  Protestants 
to  correspond  quite  closely  with  their  own  brother- 
hoods.^® 

•"The  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,"  article  in  Dublin  Review, 
April,  1883. 

'""Methodist  Men,"  June,  1911.  "The  work,  in  which  it  is  en- 
gaged is  in  many  respects  identical  with  that  of  the  Protestant  men's 
movements." 

190 


MODERN  ROMAN  LAY  BROTHERHOODS 

The  origin  of  the  Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians  in 
Ireland  is  shrouded  in  obscurity,  but  a  date  as  early  as 
1562  is  sometimes  claimed,  and  the  prince  Rory  0 'Moore 
is  the  reputed  founder.  Hibernianism  is  doubtless  as 
old  as  the  sixteenth  century,  and  arose  out  of  conflicts 
with  the  Orangemen  and  other  Protestant  societies,  and 
in  support  of  the  civil  and  religious  demands  of  Catholi- 
cism. However,  the  society  now  known  as  the  Ancient 
Order  probably  dates  from  about  1836,  the  time  of  its 
institution  in  America.  The  professed  purpose  of  the 
society  is  **to  promote  Friendship,  Unity,  and  Christian 
Charity  among  its  members  by  raising  or  supporting 
a  fund  of  money  for  maintaining  the  aged,  sick,  "blind, 
and  infirm  members,  for  the  payment  of  funeral  bene- 
fits, for  the  advancement  of  the  principles  of  Irish  na- 
tionality, for  the  legitimate  expenses  of  the  order,  and 
for  no  other  purpose  whatever.  "^^  Members  are  exclu- 
sively of  *' practical'*  Catholics.  All  matters  connected 
with  morality  or  religion  must  be  submitted  to  the  chap- 
lain, who  is  appointed  by  the  ordinary  of  the  diocese. 
The  membership  in  1908  was  put  at  127,254,  located  in 
Canada,  in  the  United  States,  and  in  Hawaii.  The  order 
has  established  a  chair  of  Gaelic  in  the  Catholic  Univer- 
sity of  America  at  Washington,  and  it  influenced  the 
government  to  appropriate  $50,000  for  a  monument  to 
Commodore  John  Barry,  *' Father  of  the  American 
Navy.'' 

About  the  time  of  the  origin  of  the  society  which  has 
just  been  represented,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  en- 
tered upon  total  abstinence  work  through  the  labors  of 
a  very  remarkable  man,  Rev.  Theobald  Mathew,  a  Cap- 
uchin known  as  Father  Mathew.^^  tj^j^  priest  of 
Cork,  Ireland,  in  1838  began  a  temperance  movement 

"  Action  of  Indianapolis  Convention,  1908. 

^2See    "Father   Mathew,"    J.    F.    Maguire,    M.  P.,    and   among   others 
the  lives  by  Mathew,   Thomas,  and  Tynan. 

191 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

which  in  the  space  of  five  months  is  said  to  have  resulted 
in  the  administration  of  the  total  abstinence  pledge  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  persons  in  Cork  alone. 
In  two  days  in  Galway  one  hundred  thousand  are  re- 
ported to  have  been  pledged.  The  work  of  Father 
Mathew,  which  assumed  for  a  time  such  proportions  as 
were  never  witnessed  in  any  other  instance  of  temper- 
ance effort,  was  done  at  personal  sacrifice,  since  the 
family  of  the  originator  of  this  movement  owned  a  huge 
distillery,  from  the  proceeds  of  which  he  had  been  ac- 
customed to  receive  large  dividends  each  year.  *'The 
crusade  of  which  he  was  the  head  caused  such  a  falling 
off  in  the  drinking  of  the  working  classes  that  the  dis- 
tillery had  to  close. ''^^ 

Father  Mathew  was  incited  to  his  greatest  life-work 
by  the  sight  of  the  gross  drunkenness  of  Ireland,  and  es- 
pecially in  Cork,  where  he  had  labored  for  twenty-four 
years  before  beginning  his  temperance  movement.  He 
was  also  lured  into  it  by  the  appeals  made  to  him  by  a 
good  Quaker,  William  Martin.  This  man  and  two  as- 
sociates, Nicholas  Dunscombe,  a  Protestant  clergyman, 
and  Richard  Dowden,  were  almost  fanatical  opponents 
of  intemperance,  as  well  they  might  have  been,  for  the 
ravages  it  was  making  in  Ireland.  William  Martin 
would  follow  Father  Mathew  about,  especially  in  his 
visits  to  the  workhouse,  and,  pointing  to  the  most 
WTetched  victims  of  strong  drink,  he  would  say:  *'0h, 
Theobald  Mathew,  if  thou  would  but  take  the  case  in 
hand!"  At  last,  after  much  deliberation,  one  evening 
in  April,  Father  Mathew  sent  for  Martin  and  requested 
him  to  assist  in  forming  a  temperance  organization, 
which  he  gladly  essayed  to  do.  The  first  meeting  of  the 
Cork  Total  Abstinence  Society  was  held  by  Father 
Mathew  in  his  own  schoolhouse,  April  10,  1838.  The 
founder  presided,  and  after  a  brief  address  exclaimed, 

^Quoted  from  an  account  in  the  Pittsburgh  Dispatch. 

192 


MODERN  ROMAN  LAY  BROTHERHOODS 

''Here  goes  in  the  Name  of  God !''  and  entered  his  name 
in  a  large  book  lying  on  the  table  as  one  who  would 
henceforth  abstain  from  the  use  of  liquor.  Some  sixty 
followed  his  example  at  the  time,  and  meetings  for  the 
purpose  of  signing  the  pledge  began  to  be  held  twice  a 
week.  The  schoolhouse  soon  had  to  be  abandoned,  and 
a  horse  bazaar,  holding  four  thousand  persons,  was  se- 
cured and  was  crowded.  Then  the  zealous  advocate  of 
temperance  went  forth  to  other  places,  scoring  a  great 
triumph  at  Limerick,  where  in  four  days  the  pledge 
was  given  to  150,000  persons;  at  Waterford,  where 
80,000  signed  in  three  days;  in  Dublin,  where  70,000 
recruits  were  secured;  at  Kells,  where  100,000  signatures 
were  taken  in  two  and  a  half  days.  In  Maynooth  Col- 
lege, Father  Mathew's  alma  mater,  eight  professors  and 
250  students  joined  36,000  adherents  obtained  from  the 
neighborhood.  The  falling  off  in  the  consumption  of 
liquors  in  Ireland,  due  to  Father  Mathew's  movement, 
caused  in  the  year  1840  a  loss  in  revenues  to  the  govern- 
ment of  £500,000.^*  **I  have  now,  with  the  Divine  as- 
sistance,'' wrote  Father  Mathew  in  1843  to  an  Ameri- 
can friend,  *' hoisted  the  banner  of  temperance  in  almost 
every  parish  in  Ireland. '* 

This  Apostle  of  Temperance  fought  other  vices  also, 
and  so  well  preached  virtue  that  crime  and  vice  re- 
treated before  him.  He  visited  Scotland,  and  in  July, 
1843,  England,  where  in  three  months  the  pledge  is 
said  to  have  been  given  to  six  hundred  thousand.  In  all 
this  work  Father  Mathew  spent  lavishly,  and,  though 
pensioned  by  the  queen,  he  never  recovered  from  the 
burden  of  debt  into  which  he  had  plunged  himself,  and 
because  of  which,  in  1847,  he  spent  a  short  time  in 
prison.  In  1849-51  he  went  to  America,  where  the  same 
wonderful  scenes  attended  his  labors  which  had  taken 

""Cyclopedia  of  Temperance  and  Prohibition,**  Funk  &  Wagnalls, 
**iMathew,  Theobald." 

13  193 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

place  in  Great  Britain.  In  the  United  States,  President 
Taylor  banqueted  Father  Mathew  at  the  White  House. 
The  United  States  Senate  voted  to  admit  him  to  the 
bar  of  the  Senate,  an  honor  previously  paid  to  one 
other  foreigner  only,  Lafayette.  On  this  occasion  Henry 
Clay  eulogized  the  work  done  by  this  ardent  spirit.  In 
Philadelphia  he  was  received  in  Independence  Hall; 
in  New  York  the  City  Council  welcomed  him  in  a  body, 
and  William  E.  Dodge  delivered  a  notable  address;  in 
Boston,  Governor  Briggs  attended  a  reception  in  his 
respect.  In  America  it  is  said  that  five  hundred  thou- 
sand disciples  of  total  abstinence  were  made  by  Father 
Mathew,  and  his  good  work  continued  after  he  returned 
home.  In  all  it  is  estimated  that  seven  million  persons 
received  the  pledge  from  him.  Wliat  a  man  was  this — 
Irish,  and  a  good  fighter!  He  "started  something,'* 
and  he  broke  many  an  evil  head.  A  big-hearted  lover  of 
his  kind,  he  had  the  impetuous  spirit  and  the  eloquent 
tongue  of  his  race.  His  dust  reposes  beneath  the  cross 
in  *' Father  Mathew 's  Cemetery,"  Queenstown,  but  his 
soul  will  leap  with  joyous  triumph  when  at  last  the 
rumshop  is  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire. 

The  Father  Mathew  Total  Abstinence  Societies  lan- 
guished after  a  time,  but  were  revived  in  various  places, 
and  they  attest  the  memory  of  their  zealous  founder. ^^ 
The  memory  of  Theobald  Mathew  led  the  archbishops 
and  bishops  of  Ireland  in  1905  to  request  the  Capuchin 
Fathers  to  undertake  a  temperance  crusade,  and  from 
the  same  inspiring  source  came  the  Young  Irish  Cru- 
saders, founded  in  January,  1909,  and  within  less  than 

^5  Ibid.  As  all  the  world  knows,  the  fickle  Irish  were  not  per- 
manently converted  to  abstinence,  but  that  was  not  the  fault  of  Father 
Mathew.  Two  years  before  the  death  of  this  good  man,  he  wrote  to  a 
friend:  "The  principle  of  prohibition  seems  to  me  the  only  safe  and 
certain  remedy  for  the  evils  of  intemperance.  This  opinion  has  been 
strengthened  by  the  hard  labor  of  more  than  twenty  years  in  the  tem- 
perance cause.  I  rejoice  in  the  welcome  intelligence  of  the  formation  of 
a  Maine  Law  Alliance,  which  I  trust  will  be  the  means,  under  God,  of 
destroying  the  fruitful  source  of  crime  and  pauperism." 

194 


MODERN  ROMAN  LAY  BROTHERHOODS 

two  years  claiming  one  hundred  thousand  members.  A 
Priests'  Total  Abstinence  League  is  noted  in  the  list  of 
Roman  Catholic  societies  of  America.^^  In  1872  a  con- 
federation was  formed  of  all  total  abstinence  societies  of 
American  Catholics,  and  which  became  known  as  the 
Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union  of  America.  This  fed- 
eration was  organized  on  a  strictly  religious  basis.  In 
1902  the  union  claimed  eighty  thousand  members.  In 
1873  Cardinal  Manning  formed  in  London  a  Catholic 
total  abstinence  confraternity  known  as  the  League  of 
the  Cross,  branches  of  which  were  formed  in  Ireland 
and  in  Australia.  No  time  limit  was  on  the  pledge 
taken,  and  the  members  were  required  to  be  good  prac- 
tical Catholics.^'^ 

The  Knights  of  Father  Mathew,  a  later  branch  of 
the  Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union,  entered  upon  its 
existence  in  1881.  *'The  object  of  the  order,"  said  its 
prospectus,  ** shall  be:  First,  to  unite  fraternally  prac- 
tical male  Catholics;  to  give  all  possible  moral  and  ma- 
terial aid  to  its  members  and  those  dependent  on  them 
by  holding  moral,  instructive,  and  scientific  lectures ;  by 
assisting  its  members  to  obtain  employment;  by  encour- 
aging them  in  the  pursuit  of  their  profession,  trade,  or 
occupation;  and  to  provide  means,  from  the  proceeds 
of  assessments  upon  its  members,  wherewith  to  assist 
its  sick  and  disabled  members,  and  for  the  relief  and 
aid  of  the  families,  widows,  and  orphans,  or  other  bene- 
ficiaries of  its  deceased  members.  Second,  to  encourage 
all  persons,  by  advice  and  example,  to  abstain  from  all 
intoxicating  drinks  and  to  cement  the  bonds  of  charity 
and  union  that  should  exist  among  all  Catholics.'' 

The  work  of  this  society  began  in  Missouri  and  ex- 
tended elsewhere.    Its  age  limit  was  fixed  at  fifty.    In- 

"See  "Official  Catholic  Directory,'*  United  States  and  Canada  edi- 
tion. 

"  "Catholic  Directory,"  London,  1910. 

195 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

surance  features  not  found  in  the  Union  were  adopted, 
benefits  varying  from  $100  to  $2,000.  Violation  of  the 
abstinence  pledge  was  made  to  nullify  the  insurance 
policy,  and  the  member  who  was  guilty  of  such  violation 
was  required  to  take  a  new  medical  examination  and  to 
pay  a  fine.  Strict  rules  limited  the  numbers  but  raised 
the  quality  of  the  membership.  The  local  councils  took 
up  social  and  educational  features  as  they  desired,  and 
the  spiritual  oversight  was  entrusted  to  a  director,  ap- 
pointed from  the  clergy.  Each  local  council  required 
its  members  once  a  year  to  attend  communion. ^^ 

The  list  of  benevolent  associations  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Churches  of  America  established  during  the 
last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  contains  several 
names  which  represent  large  and  flourishing  bodies.  The 
Catholic  Mutual  Benefit  Association  was  founded  in 
1876,  and  in  1912  it  reported  a  membership  of  over 
sixty  thousand,  and  disbursements  of  a  million  and  a 
half  dollars.  The  Catholic  Knights  of  America  began 
work  in  1877,  being  established  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
then  Bishop  of  Nashville  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
to  Roman  Catholic  men  the  same  advantages  as  were 
offered  brothers  in  fraternal  organizations  outside  their 
Church.  The  statement  of  the  object  of  this  society  was 
thus  made:  *'To  promote  friendship,  unity,  and  true 
Christian  charity  among  its  members;  friendship,  in 
assisting  each  other  by  every  honorable  means ;  unity,  in 
associating  together  for  mutual  support  of  one  another 
when  sick  or  in  distress,  and  in  making  suitable  pro- 
vision for  widows,  orphans,  and  dependents  of  deceased 
members;  true  Christian  charity,  in  doing  unto  each 
other  as  we  would  have  others  do  unto  us.'*  The 
Knights  admitted  women  to  the  benefits  and  claimed 

"In  "The  Church  and  Young  Men,"  Cressy,  pp.  224-226,  a  member 
was  quoted  as  saying  of  losses  through  violation  of  the  pledge,  "With 
the  branch  of  the  Knights  of  Father  Mathew  that  I  am  interested  in  the 
loss  is  only  about  five  per  cent." 

196 


MODERN  ROMAN  LAY  BROTHERHOODS 

in  1906  twenty-five  thousand  members.^^  The  member- 
ship was  limited  to  Catholics  *'in  good  standing/'  and 
a  uniform  rank  was  established. 

In  1879  members  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  of  Boston  desired  to  form  a  Catholic  fraternal  in- 
surance society,  and,  organizing  a  body  of  this  kind  on 
the  plan  of  the  Foresters'  courts,  they  called  it  the 
Massachusetts  Catholic  Order  of  Foresters.  In  1883 
Catholics  of  Chicago,  111.,  organized  the  Catholic  Order 
of  Foresters  of  Illinois.  Although  the  Catholic  Order 
of  Foresters  was  established  as  a  lay  organization,  it 
is  indirectly  controlled  by  ecclesiastical  influences  and 
the  rules  of  the  order  are  strictly  conformed  to  Cath- 
olic discipline.  A  flat  all-around  death  assessment  of 
one  dollar  was  adopted  and  men  of  aU  ages  were  taken 
at  the  same  rate.  Later  a  system  of  graded  assessments 
was  adopted,  and  age  limits  on  entrance  were  fixed  at 
eighteen  to  forty-five  years.  The  two  orders  of  Cath- 
olic Foresters  did  not  affliate.  The  former  reported 
27,757  members  in  1909,  and  the  latter,  having  dropped 
from  its  title  the  word  Illinois,  and  having  widely  ex- 
tended in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada,  reported 
136,212  members. 

The  Catholic  Benevolent  Legion,  another  of  the  in- 
surance societies  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was 
organized  in  Brooklyn  in  September,  1881,  and  the  ob- 
jects stated  included  social,  benevolent,  and  intellectual 
improvement.  Catholic  men  between  the  ages  of  eighteen 
and  fifty-five  were  made  eligible  to  admission.  Life  in- 
surance, not  to  exceed  $5,000,  was  furnished  on  assess- 
ment rates  proportioned  to  the  age  of  members.  The 
membership  stated  for  1911  was  16,402,  and  nearly  a 
million  dollars  had  been  paid  in  benefits  during  the  pre- 
ceding year.     The  councils  were  located  in  the  States 

"  "The  World  Almanac,"  for  1912  allowed  only  19,000.     Th«  ••Cath- 
olic Encyclopedia"  says  20,000  in  1907. 

197 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
and  Connecticut. 

The  Knights  of  Columbus  quickly  became  the  largest 
of  the  Roman  fraternal  and  benefit  societies.  Founded 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  February,  1882,  it  was  incorpo- 
rated under  the  laws  of  that  Commonwealth.  Most  of 
the  organizers  were  laymen,  and  they  took  for  their 
purposes  the  development  of  practical  Catholicity  among 
the  members,  the  promotion  of  Catholic  education  and 
charity,  and  to  furnish  through  an  insurance  depart- 
ment at  least  temporary  financial  aid  to  the  families  of 
deceased  members.  The  first  council  was  San  Salvador, 
No.  1,  New  Haven.  The  society  did  not  extend  beyond 
Connecticut  until  1885,  when  a  council  was  established 
in  Westerley,  R.  I.  At  that  time  a  Supreme  Council  was 
determined  upon,  and  general  extension  began,  and  con- 
tinued until  all  the  States  of  the  Federal  Union  were 
entered,  and  also  every  province  of  Canada,  and  New- 
foundland, the  Philippines,  Mexico,  Cuba,  and  Panama. 
Later  plans  took  in  extensions  in  Porto  Rico  and  South 
America. 

March  1,  1910,  the  Knights  of  Columbus  reported 
74,909  insurance  and  160,703  associate  members,  the 
latter  of  which  classes  of  membership,  first  admitted  in 
1893,  was  for  men  of  advanced  years  or  unable  to  pass 
a  physical  examination  or  not  desirous  of  the  insurance 
benefits.  Insurance  policies  were  issued  for  from  one 
to  three  thousand  dollars  to  desirable  risks  between 
eighteen  and  sixty  years  of  age,  the  rates  increasing 
every  five  years  until  the  age  of  sixty,  when  a  level 
premium  based  on  age  at  initiation  was  required.  At 
the  date  above  given,  the  society,  in  its  twenty-eight 
years  of  history,  had  paid  out  to  beneficiaries  nearly 
four  and  a  half  millions. 

The  Knights  of  Columbus  engaged  in  educational 
and  charitable  undertakings.    They  provided  homes  for 

198 


MODERN  ROMAN  LAY  BROTHERHOODS 

Catholic  orphans,  endowed  scholarships  in  Catholic  col- 
leges, and  beds  in  hospitals,  provided  lectures  on  Cath- 
olic doctrine,  conducted  employment  bureaus,  assisted 
the  sick  to  enter  sanatoria,  and  in  general  performed 
**the  work  of  the  apostolate  of  the  laity.*'  In  1904  the 
order  gave  to  the  Catholic  University  at  Washington 
$50,000  for  a  chair  of  American  history.  Lectures  to 
non-Catholics  have,  it  is  said,  been  largely  attended, 
and  this  propaganda  declares  itself  to  be  **a  movement 
which  does  not  aim  at  attacking  any  man's  belief,  but 
at  building  up  charity  among  men  and,  in  the  words  of 
Bishop  Keane,  *  bringing  us  all  closer  to  God  Al- 
mighty.' "  In  several  cities  the  Knights  have  either 
established  Catholic  libraries  or  catalogued  the  Catholic 
books  in  the  public  libraries.  ** Columbus  Day,"  Oc- 
tober 12th,  was  instituted  largely  by  the  efforts  of  the 
Knights  of  Columbus,  who  strove  to  make  it  a  National 
holiday.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  this  order,  with  its  varied 
range  of  activities,  with  its  imposing  membership,  and 
with  its  financial  strength,  brought  no  slight  degree  of 
power  to  the  Church  in  which  it  was  born. 

Aside  from  the  distinguished  general  societies  re- 
corded, it  should  be  mentioned  that  during  the  same  pe- 
riod covered  by  their  origination  individual  Catholic 
Churches  often  founded  local  fraternities  securing  mu- 
tual benefits  to  the  members,  as  for  example  the  St.  Jo- 
seph's Benevolent  Society  of  St.  Joseph's  Church,  Port- 
land. Sodalities  and  young  men's  institutes  were  origi- 
nated in  many  parishes,  and  devoted  themselves  to  liter- 
ary, social,  and  philanthropic  enterprises.  Catholic  clubs 
also  characterized  the  religious  life  of  many  cities.  That 
of  New  York  City  dated  from  1863  and  organized  its 
beginnings  from  the  Xavier  Alumni  Sodality.  This 
club  acquired  headquarters  on  Central  Park,  the  site 
having  cost  $115,000,  and  the  building,  opened  in  1892, 
$225,000.    The  membership  last  reported  was  one  thou- 

199 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

sand.  A  library  was  established  and  grew  to  over 
thirty-five  thousand  volumes.  Lectures  were  frequently 
given,  and  the  study  of  Catholic  history,  science,  and 
art,  as  well  as  the  promotion  of  Catholic  interests  in 
general  was  undertaken. 

The  Young  Men's  Institute  was  established  as  in 
some  respects  a  counterpart  of  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association.  **  Mutual  aid  and  benevolence,  the 
moral,  social,  and  intellectual  improvement  of  its  mem- 
bers, and  the  proper  development  of  sentiments  of  de- 
votion to  the  Catholic  Church  and  loyalty  to  our  country, 
in  accordance  with  its  motto:  Pro  Deo,  Fro  P atria,'* 
were  among  the  undertakings  assumed.  The  term 
''practical  Catholic,"  used  in  the  membership  qualifica- 
tions of  the  various  lay  associations  of  the  Roman 
Church  was  thus  defined:  *'It  is  a  term  lased  to  desig- 
nate a  communicant  who  believes  all  the  tenets  of  the 
Church  and  complies  with  what  are  commonly  known  as 
its  six  precepts,  namely:  (1)  To  attend  mass  on  Sunday 
and  holy  days  of  obligation.  (2)  To  abstain  from  meat 
on  Fridays  and  all  fast  days  prescribed  by  the  Church. 

(3)  To  receive  holy  communion  during  the  Easter  time. 

(4)  To  go  to  confession  once  a  year,  and  during  the 
Easter  time.  (5)  To  contribute  to  the  support  of  the 
pastor.  (6)  Not  to  be  married  within  the  forbidden 
times,  that  is  during  Lent  and  Advent,  or  within  for- 
bidden degrees  of  kindred.  "^° 

**The  Sodality"  is  a  name  for  societies  of  many 
kinds  and  of  various  classes  of  members;  as  married 
men,  married  women,  young  men,  young  women,  boys, 
and  girls.  This  type  of  organization  was  intended  to 
be  more  distinctly  spiritual  than  were  most  of  the  so- 
cities  of  Catholic  laymen.  Members  were  expected 
to  attend  communion  once  a  month,  and  were  placed 
under  the  special  religious  culture  of  a  priest.     Each 

**Cressy,  op.  cit.,  p.  224. 

200 


MODERN  ROMAN  LAY  BROTHERHOODS 

sodality  was  independent  of  others.  Sodality  houses 
with  institutional  features  were  erected  in  some  parishes. 
Another  Catholic  society,  popular  particularly  in  work- 
ingmen's  districts,  was  called  the  lyceum.  Three  re- 
quirements were  laid  down  for  members.  The  man 
must  be  a  good  Catholic,  must  be  of  good  moral  char- 
acter, and  must  have  some  desire  to  improve  himself. 
In  the  largest  cities  in  which  they  were  established 
thousands  of  men  were  drawn  into  the  lyceums,  espe- 
cially when  they  were  located  in  a  spacious  and  well- 
appointed  building. 

In  this  survey  of  modern  lay  activities  in  the  Roman 
Church  the  Holy  Name  societies,  whose  early  origin  and 
history  have  been  presented,  must  not  be  forgotten.  Nor 
should  the  Society  of  the  Angelic  Warfare  be  ignored, 
an  organization  for  priests  and  seminarians,  and  like- 
wise for  young  men  and  boys  in  Catholic  colleges  and 
universities.  The  basis  of  this  society  is  the  miracle  of 
the  girding  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  by  angels  during  a 
temptation  against  purity.^^  The  International  Truth 
Society,  incorporated  in  1900,  answers  inquiries  about 
Catholic  doctrine,  refutes  misstatements  and  calumnies, 
promotes  the  interests  of  Catholic  affairs  through  the 
medium  of  the  press,  stimulates  in  the  laity  a  desire 
for  higher  education,  seeks  to  increase  the  circulation 
of  Catholic  literature,  and  engages  upon  other  educa- 
tional missionary  work.  Like  the  other  general  societies 
of  the  Church,  this  organization  is  in  the  hands  of  ec- 
clesiastics, but  uses  laymen  to  effect  its  purposes. 

The  different  societies  of  Catholic  laymen  are  leagued 
together  in  strong  federations.  The  Catholic  Young 
Men's  National  Union,  formed  in  1875,  brought  into 
connection  with  each  other  the  diocesan  unions  of  young 
men  among  Roman  Catholics  in  the  United  States.  This 
union  was  formally  approved  by  the  Third  Plenary 

=1  "Catholic  Directory,"  p.  784. 

201 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Council  of  Baltimore  in  1878,  and  in  1906  it  reported 
fifty  thousand  members.  Its  work  was  to  consolidate 
and  to  give  constitutions  to  diocesan  unions,  to  estab- 
lish libraries,  reading-rooms,  and  night  schools,  to  pro- 
vide soldiers  and  sailors  with  reading  matter. 

The  most  significant  movement  of  Catholic  laymen 
took  place  in  1901,  when  the  American  Federation  of 
Catholic  Societies  was  formed,  later  joined,  in  1910,  on 
the  suggestion  of  delegate-apostolic  Falconio,  by  the 
Knights  of  Columbus,  and  comprising  in  1911  twenty- 
one  National  organizations  and  many  State  and  county 
federations  and  parishes.  Three  million  members  of 
both  sexes  were  then  claimed.^^  The  objects  chosen  were 
to  cement  the  bonds  of  fraternal  union  among  the  Cath- 
olic laymen,  and  to  foster  and  promote  Catholic  inter- 
ests. A  specific  platform,  adopted  in  1907,  made  the 
following  statements  concerning  the  federation:  **It 
aims  at  the  creation  of  sound  public  opinion  on  all  im- 
portant topics  of  the  day;  it  stands  for  the  Christian 
life  of  the  nation  itself;  for  the  proper  observance  of 
Sunday;  for  the  Christian  education  of  youth;  for  the 
sanctity  and  perpetuity  of  Christian  marriage;  for  the 
safeguarding  of  the  Christian  home.  It  asserts  the  ne- 
cessity of  Christian  principles  in  social  and  public  life, 
in  the  State,  in  business,  in  all  financial  and  industrial 
relations.  It  is  willing  to  co-operate  with  all  loyal  citi- 
zens and  with  all  civil  and  social  energies  which  work 
for  truth  and  virtue.  The  aims  of  the  federation  are 
religious  and  patriotic;  they  are  the  interests  of  all 
American  citizens,  and  especially  of  those  who  believe 
in  a  Divine  Law-giver  and  in  the  revelation  of  a  divine 
religion  through  Christ  our  Savior. ''^^  The  report  has 
been  made  that  this  federation  determined  from  its 
foundation  to  secure  the  election  of  more  Roman  Cath- 

^See  "World  Almanac"  for  latest  reported  growth. 
^Reported  in  Congregationalist. 

202 


MODERN  ROMAN  LAY  BROTHERHOODS 

olics  to  public  office,  and  to  obtain  State  support  for 
parochial  schools.  The  practical  wisdom  and  strength 
of  such  a  union  of  forces  are  unquestionable,  and  the 
outcome  of  this  movement  was  a  new  access  of  zeal  and 
of  courage  to  attempt  great  matters.  It  is  said  that  in 
1908  the  pope  declared,  ''What  the  Church  needs  to-day 
more  than  anything  else  is  more  laymen. ''^4  The  fed- 
eration is  seeking  to  supply  this  demand  as  did  indi- 
vidual fraternities  long  before  the  union,  and  to  do  so 
more  effectively. 

A  later  and  significant  development  of  the  Roman 
men's  movement  was  the  organization  and  incorporation 
as  a  branch  of  the  American  Federation  of  the  Militia 
of  Christ  for  Social  Service.  The  officers  and  members 
of  this  society  were  largely  recruits  from  the  ranks  of 
the  labor  unions.  The  bulletin  of  the  Federated  Catholic 
Societies  thus  announced  this  undertaking:  "In  brief, 
the  object  of  'The  Militia  of  Christ  for  Social  Service' 
is  the  defense  of  the  Christian  order  of  society  and  its 
progressive  development.  The  Militia  of  Christ  will  rest 
upon  the  ethical,  sociological,  economic,  and  political 
doctrine  of  Christian  philosophy  as  developed  in  the 
course  of  history — the  legacy  of  Tradition  as  voiced  in 
modern  times  in  the  letters  of  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X. 
The  propaganda  will  be  carried  on  by  means  of  syndi- 
cated letters  to  the  Catholic  and  labor  press,  by  social 
lectures  and  conferences,  by  the  advocacy  of  Christian 
principles  in  trade  unions,  an  intelligent  and  active  in- 
terest in  labor  legislation,  the  problems  of  civil  service 
and  general  administration,  industrial  education.  Mem- 
bership is  limited  to  practical  Catholics  who  accept  the 
principles  of  trade  unionism  and  contribute  one  dollar 
per  year." 

The  modem  lay  revival  among  Romanists  is  unpar- 

"S©©  "Methodist  Men,"  June,  1911. 
203 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

alleled  in  their  history  or  in  any  movement  of  the  kind 
of  like  magnitude  in  Church  life.  If  one  seeks  to  know 
the  causes  of  recent  Catholic  growth  and  power  in  the 
United  States,  one  of  the  most  influential  of  these  will 
be  found  to  be  the  freedom  of  initiative  allowed  by  Ro- 
manism in  the  organization  of  lay  orders,  and  in  the  stir- 
ring competitions  which  exist  between  its  varied  soci- 
eties. Protestant  Churches  usually  repress  individual 
genius  and  devotion  into  established  forms,  and  being 
afraid  of  internal  strife,  they  are  inclined  to  eliminate 
even  the  wholesome  rivalry  which  expresses  and  de- 
velopes  life.  This  policy  should  be  changed,  and  they 
should  also  relate  together  their  various  organizations  in 
a  close  and  loyal  union  established  upon  principles  par- 
allel to  those  of  the  American  Federation  of  Catholic 
Societies.  The  socialistic  and  radical  press  from  the 
first  saw  in  this  movement  a  menace  to  political  liberty 
and  a  revival  of  mediaevalism.  The  Protestant  Churches, 
however,  see  in  Roman  lay  activity  a  work  to  be  emu- 
lated, and  in  which  the  newer  brotherhoods  already  be- 
gin to  assume  strength.  They  look  forward  to  the  day 
when  all  Christian  men  shall  be  vitally  allied  to  the  in- 
terests of  Christ's  Kingdom,  and  when  their  organiza- 
tions in  the  two  great  branches  of  Christendom,  Prot- 
estant and  Catholic,  strongly  contending  for  pre-emi- 
nence in  good  work,  shall  be  one  in  contesting  against 
the  machinations  of  evil,  and  in  seeking  to  cast  down 
the  strongholds  of  Satan. 


204 


XIII 

EARLY  PROTESTANT  BROTHERHOODS 

FROM  THE.  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  NINETEENTH. 

It  has  been  seen  that  the  Reformation  drove  religious 
orders  out  of  the  countries  dominated  by  the  Protestant 
spirit.  An  iconoclasm  which  spared  little  of  the  old 
forms  of  organization  not  only  destroyed  monastic  es- 
tablishments in  Northern  Europe,  but  for  some  time 
prevented  the  re-establishment  of  vigorous  religious 
societies  of  men.  Of  course  in  the  Catholic  States  the 
stronger  mediasval  societies  were  retained,  and  new  or- 
ganizations with  modified  and  specialized  functions  arose 
to  defend  the  ancient  Church  and  to  promote  its  inter- 
ests.    These  societies  have  already  been  considered. 

In  the  sense  designated  by  the  knightly  orders  the 
Protestant  Church  has  had  no  military-religious  brother- 
hoods. Some  mention  should,  however,  be  made  of  the 
Schmalkaldic  League  and  the  Protestant  Union,  inas- 
much as  these  organizations  were  composed  of  men  de- 
voted to  religious  causes. 

At  the  close  of  1530  the  Protestant  princes  of  Ger- 
many, influenced  by  fear  of  the  aggressive  measures 
being  taken  against  them  by  the  papal  commander,  Em- 
peror Charles  V,  assembled  at  Schmalkalden,  or  Smal- 
cald.  District  of  Cassel,  Prussia,  and  formed  an  associ- 
ation called  the  Schmalkaldic  League,  which  eventually 
covered  the  whole  of  Northern  Germany,  Saxony,  Wiirt- 
temberg,  and  Denmark,  with  parts  of  Bavaria  and 
Switzerland/    The  object  of  this  confederacy  of  princes 

1  "The  Age  of  the  Reformation,"  Martin  Philippson,  Ph.D.,  Vol.  XI. 
"History  of  AU  Nations,"  p.  119  ff. 

2m 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

was  the  defense  of  the  political  and  religious  freedom 
of  Protestants.  The  league  was  to  last  for  six  years,  but 
in  1535  it  was  renewed  for  ten  years  more,  and  it  was 
decided  to  raise  a  permanent  army.  From  political  mo- 
tives Francis  I  of  France  now  joined  the  league,  and 
Henry  VIII  of  England  declared  himself  its  protector. 
In  1537  a  group  of  theologians  met  at  Schmalkalden, 
and  under  the  auspices  of  the  league,  part  of  its  state- 
ments being  drawn  by  Luther  himself,  they  prepared 
the  Articles  of  Schmalkalden,  designed  to  represent 
Protestant  views  at  the  proposed  Council  of  Mantua, 
which  the  pope  had  announced,  but  which  he  never  held. 
These  articles  conformed  fuUy  to  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession, and  the  Lutheran  Church  adopted  them  with 
its  symbolical  books. 

During  its  latter  years  the  league  was  torn  with 
jealousies,  and  while  it  achieved  victories  in  the  Schmal- 
kaldic  War,  it  was  finally  routed  at  Miihlberg,  April  24, 
1547,  and  John  Frederick,  Elector  of  Saxony,  was  cap- 
tured. The  objects  of  this  Protestant  brotherhood  in 
arms  were,  however,  later  achieved  by  Duke  Maurice, 
who  as  elector  in  1552  declared  war  against  the  emperor 
and  forced  from  him  the  Treaty  of  Passan,  securing  for 
Protestants  the  boon  of  religious  liberty. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  con- 
dition of  religious  affairs  in  Northern  Europe  again 
seemed  to  them  to  demand  an  alliance  of  princes  of 
Protestant  faith  to  oppose  the  movements  of  the  Catholic 
League.^  Encouraged  by  the  success  of  the  Schmalkaldic 
League  three-fourths  of  a  century  before.  Christian  of 
Anhalt  with  a  few  other  princes,  afterwards  joined  in 
self-defense  by  many  more,  formed  the  Protestant  Union, 
which  had  so  large  a  part  in  the  successes  and  in  the 
defeats  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.    Several  of  the  mem- 

2  "The  Religious  Wars,'*  Martin  Philippson,  Ph.  D.,  Vol.  XII,  "His^ 
tory  of  All  Nations,"  pp.  76,  77. 

206 


EARLY  PROTESTANT  BROTHERHOODS 

bers  of  this  union  were  of  uncertain  loyalty,  and  even 
the  advent  of  that  splendid  leader,  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
failed  to  bring  all  of  them  into  unequivocal  allegiance 
to  the  Protestant  cause.^  As  a  result  of  this  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia,  which  concluded  the  long  period  of  con- 
fused warring  by  which  German  population  was  re- 
duced to  a  third  of  its  former  strength,  and  many  towns 
and  cities  were  annihilated,  was  a  compromise  far  less 
favorable  to  Protestant  interests  than  might  otherwise 
have  been  the  case.  Without  doubt,  however,  much  of 
the  sturdy  character  of  modem  German  evangelicals  has 
been  influenced  by  the  toils  and  strifes  through  which 
their  faith  was  won. 

The  Irish  secret  political  society  known  as  the 
Orangemen  is  composed  exclusively  of  Protestants  and 
is  named  in  honor  of  William  III,  Prince  of  Orange. 
This  wealthy  and  influential  society  succeeded  the  un- 
couth **Peep-of-Day  Boys"  who  contested  with  the  Ro- 
manist societies  known  as  Defenders,  or  Ribbonmen. 
The  first  Orange  lodge  was  organized  in  Loughgall, 
County  Armagh,  September  21,  1795,  and  such  was  the 
strife  between  Orangemen  and  Ribbonmen  that  the  law 
was  powerless.  Riots  were  continuous,  and  punishment 
could  not  be  meted  out,  since  witnesses  were  intimidated 
and  juries  sometimes  refused  to  convict  persons  of  their 
own  order.  In  1808  Orangeism  entered  England,  and  in 
time  it  extended  to  all  British  colonies  and  to  the  United 
States.  The  British  army  became  a  center  for  this  strife. 
In  1834  it  was  found  by  Parliament  that  thirty-four  regi- 
ments had  Orange  lodges,  and  in  the  following  year  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  afterward  King  of  Hanover,  its 
imperial  grand  master,  was  compelled  to  dissolve  the 

'The  GustavTis  Adolphus  Union  (Evangelischer  Verein  der  Gustav- 
Adolf-Stiftung)  is  a  general  society  of  two  centuries  later,  whose  objects 
have  been  to  oppose  Catholicism  and  to  broaden  Protestantism,  especially 
in  the  recognition  of  its  vital  interests.  See  Zimmerman's  "Geschichte 
des  Gustav-Adolf -Vereins. '  * 

207 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

order  in  Ireland.  It  was  reviewed  in  1845,  however, 
and  renewed  its  political  activities.  At  the  present  time 
the  lodges  have  many  thousands  of  members.  Great 
Orange  demonstrations  take  place  annually,  on  July 
12th;  the  anniversary  of  the  battles  of  Aghrim  and  of 
the  Boyne,  and  the  troubles  caused  by  the  antagonisms 
between  these  men  and  their  Catholic  rivals  have  been 
treated  elsewhere.  It  should  be  stated  that  the  best 
leaders  of  both  Churches,  Protestant  and  Catholic,  have 
denounced  the  unseemly  sectarianism  and  bitterness  of 
both  Defenders  and  Orangemen.* 

Coming  now  to  the  subject  of  Protestant  Brother- 
hoods for  distinctively  religious  purposes,  it  will  be  well 
to  begin  with  a  double  quotation.  The  early  historian 
of  a  great  religious  institution  penned  the  following 
passage:  **Mr.  Pattison  in  his  deeply  interesting  work, 
'The  Rise  and  Progress  of  Religious  Life  in  England,' 
says:  *  Similarity  of  religious  action  in  all  times  may  be 
discerned  in  the  first  formation  of  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Associations.  In  1632  a  number  of  London  appren- 
tices, having  no  other  opportunity  for  religious  con- 
versation save  the  Lord's  day,  united  together  to  meet 
at  five  o  'clock  on  Sunday  mornings  for  an  hour 's  prayer 
and  religious  conversation,  and  at  six  o'clock  attended 
the  morning  lecture  at  Cornhill  or  Christ  Church.'  In 
the  'Life  of  Dr.  William  Harris'  we  find  mention  of  a 
similar  association  meeting  once  a  week  *for  prayer, 
reading,  and  religious  conversation ;  for  the  mutual  com- 
munication of  knowledge ;  and  with  a  view  of  strengthen- 
ing each  other  against  the  solicitations  of  evil  company. ' 
He  quotes  for  these  facts  'Wilson's  History  of  Dissent- 
ing Churches.'  "^ 

*Vide  "Orangeism;  Its  Origin,  Constitution,  and  Objects,"  Lilburn. 

"B.  W.  Shipton,  "The  History  of  the  Young  Men's  CHiristian  Asso- 
ciation of  London,"  Exeter  Hall  Lectures,  Vol.  for  1845,  X.  See 
"Hist,  and  Antiq.  of  Dissenting  Churches,"  etc.,  Walter  Wilson,  Vol.  I, 
p.  65. 

208 


EARLY  PROTESTANT  BROTHERHOODS 

Other  societies  such  as  the  foregoing  were  in  quiet 
operation  in  various  cities  during  a  large  part  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  Small  and  scattered,  they  neverthe- 
less exerted  a  very  considerable  influence  for  good.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  century,  simultaneously,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic,  what  may  be  more  exactly  termed 
Protestant  Church  brotherhoods  sprang  up  and  grew 
into  a  very  considerable  importance.  These  societies 
are  closely  related  to  the  names  of  Cotton  Mather  in 
America  and  Anthony  Horneck  in  England. 

Dr.  Cotton  Mather,  in  his  autobiography,  describing 
his  religious  experiences  in  early  life,  states  that  about 
1677,  when  he  was  fifteen  years  of  age,  he  was  associated 
with  a  group  of  young  men  gathered  for  Christian  coun- 
sel and  improvement.  *'One  singular  advantage  to  me 
while  I  was  thus  a  lad,''  he  says,  **was  my  acquaintance 
with  and  relation  to  a  society  of  young  men  in  our  town 
who  met  every  evening,  after  ye  Lord's  day,  for  ye 
services  of  religion.  There  we  constantly  prayed,  and 
sang  a  psalm,  taking  our  turns  in  such  devotions.  "We 
then  had  a  devout  question,  proposed  a  week  before, 
whereto  any  one  present  gave  what  answer  he  pleased, 
and  I  still  concluded  the  answer.  As  ye  Lord  made 
poor  me  to  be  a  little  useful  unto  these  and  other  meet- 
ings of  young  people  in  my  youth,  so  He  made  these 
meetings  very  useful  unto  me.  Their  love  to  me,  their 
prayers  for  me,  and  my  probationary  essays  among  them 
had  a  more  than  ordinary  influence  upon  my  after  im- 
provements. ' '  ® 

Those  who  are  familiar  with  English  history  will 
recall  the  fact  that  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 

•His  son,  Samuel  Mather,  says,  "Unto  these  meetings  he  ascribed 
his  first  rise  and  improvement  in  the  art  of  speaking,  of  praying,  etc." 
Barrett  Wendell,  in  "Cotton  Mather,  the  Puritan  Priest,"  p.  37,  quotes 
his  subject  as  saying  that  he  "had  great  benefit  from  a  society  of  young 
men,"  etc.,  and  states  that  in  early  life  he  was  afflicted  with  an  impedi- 
ment in  his  speech. 

14  209 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Charles  II  was  a  season  of  extreme  dissoluteness^  Vice 
and  folly  were  in  high  carnival  in  the  various  strata  of 
society,  in  each  after  its  own  order.  It  was  not  a  time 
when  religious  earnestness  would  be  looked  for.  Never- 
theless at  this  period  of  widespread  and  malignant  evil 
a  new  tendency  of  young  men  to  associate  themselves  to- 
gether for  Christian  culture  and  service  is  to  he  noted. 
In  1678,  as  nearly  as  may  be  estimated,  a  year  later 
than  the  time  when  the  boy  Mather  attended  a  similar 
meeting  in  New  England,  a  number  of  young  men  of 
the  Church  of  England,  living  in  London  and  vicinity, 
**were  awakened  to  serious  concern  for  the  soul's  in- 
terest." Some  of  these  men  had  fallen  under  the  temp- 
tations of  their  age,  but  others  were  of  sturdier  char- 
acter and  were  living  in  obedience  to  the  highest  prin- 
ciples of  morality.  That  all  of  these  men  became  aroused 
to  a  sense  of  spiritual  needs  and  duties  was  due  to  the 
sermons  of  Dr.  Anthony  Horneck  of  Westminster,  and 
of  the  Sunday  morning  speaker  at  Comhill,  Mr. 
Smithies.  Another  city  clergyman,  Mr.  Beveridge,  had 
also  some  part  in  this  matter,  and  the  young  men  who 
became  concerned  about  the  condition  of  themselves  and 
of  their  associates  appealed  to  these  ministers,  and  es- 
pecially to  Dr.  Horneck,  for  counsel  and  Christian  di- 
rection. Meeting  each  other  on  these  errands,  a  fellow- 
ship sprang  up  which  soon  resulted  in  the  practice  of 
coming  together  weekly,  and  rules  for  their  association 
and  exercises  were  soon  adopted.  The  original  design 
was  **  mutual  assistance  and  consolation  in  their  Chris- 
tian warfare,''^  but  soon  concern  for  others  arose,  and 
special  attention  was  given  to  the  careless  and  unawak- 

'  See  account  in  chapter  on  "Religion"  and  elsewhere  in  "London  in 
the  Time  of  the  Stuarts,"   Walter  Besant. 

*  For  a  general  account  of  these  societies  see  E.  W,  Shipton's  op. 
cit.,  x-xix.  Richard  Watson,  "Life  of  Wesley,"  p.  64,  nota,  "By  their 
rules  they  were  obliged  to  discourse  only  on  such  subjects  as  tended  to 
practical  holiness  ...  to  promote  schools,  and  the  catechising  of 
young  and  ignorant  X)ersons  in  their  respective  families." 

210 


EARLY  PROTESTANT  BROTHERHOODS 

ened  of  their  acquaintance,  this  form  of  service  being 
signally  blessed,  and  resulting  in  accessions  to  the  so- 
cieties.^ 

A  writer  in  St.  Andrew's  Cross  describes  doubtless 
the  earlier  period  in  the  history  of  the  Horneck  societies. 
'*  Anthony  Horneck  had  gained  great  influence  as  a 
preacher  at  the  Savoy.  It  was  no  easy  matter  to  get 
through  the  crowd  to  the  church,  and  strangers  were 
astonished  at  the  number  of  communicants.  Few  men, 
we  are  told,  were  so  frequently  applied  to  in  difficul- 
ties and  cases  of  conscience.  His  societies  were  com- 
posed of  young  men  who  had  been  confirmed,  and  had 
resolved  upon  a  holy  and  serious  life.  Apprentices  were 
not  admitted,  and  no  member  was  to  be  received  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  directing  minister.  They  met  on 
a  stated  day,  once  a  week;  a  fine  of  three  pence  being 
imposed  for  absence  without  cause.  The  Church  prayers 
were  read;  a  Psalm  might  be  sung;  religious  discourse 
was  optional,  controversy  was  strictly  forbidden;  the 
practical  divinity  was  to  be  chosen  by  the  clergyman. 
Each  member  paid  six  pence  every  time  to  the  alms-box, 
and  on  Whit  Tuesday  a  steward  was  appointed,  and  the 
money  distributed  among  the  poor.  Such  as  left  the 
society  were  required  to  pay  a  fine  of  five  shillings. 
The  rule  of  life  is  commended  to  all  members,  calls 
upon  them  to  love  one  another ;  to  speak  evil  of  no  man ; 
to  wrong  no  man;  to  pray,  if  possible,  seven  times  a 
day;  to  keep  close  to  the  Church  of  England;  to  be 
peaceable  and  helpful;  to  examine  themselves  at  night; 
to  give  all  their  due;  to  obey  their  spiritual  superiors. 

**They  were  called  upon  to  communicate  regularly, 
and  were  recommended  to  admonish  and  watch  over  one 
another,  and  to  fortify  each  other  against  those  temp- 
tations which  assaulted  them  from  the  world,  and  their 

'A  considerable  account  of  these  societies  was  published  by  Rev. 
Josiali  Woodward,  of  Poplar,  in  1698. 

211 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

corruption,  and  these  persons,  knowing  each  others' 
manners  of  life,  and  their  peculiar  frailties  and  tempta- 
tions, partly  by  their  familiar  conversation  and  partly 
from  their  own  inward  experience,  can  much  better  in- 
spect, admonish,  and  guard  each  other  than  the  most 
faithful  minister  usually  can/'^** 

The  charities  of  the  Horneck  societies  extended  to 
many  poor  families,  to  prisoners,  to  students  at  the  uni- 
versities, to  orphans,  to  libraries  erected  at  the  '^foreign 
plantations"  of  England.  Two  stewards,  elected  an- 
nually, were  the  officers  of  these  simply  organized  socie- 
ties, and  these  men  usually  presided  and  bore  the  alms 
of  members  to  afflicted  persons. 

"Woodward's  account  preserves  several  quaint  rec- 
ords of  the  good  works  of  these  Christian  brothers.  **I 
was  present,"  he  says  in  the  course  of  these  histories, 
**at  one  of  their  conferences,  when  a  very  poor  man 
came,  with  most  earnest  affection,  to  return  them  thanks 
for  what  they  had  done  both  for  his  body  and  soul.  It 
seems  he  was  a  perfect  stranger  to  them  all,  and  to 
every  other  person  in  the  place,  where  God  cast  him 
down  by  a  sharp  and  long  sickness,  in  which  (as  he 
said)  his  soul  and  body  like  to  have  perished  together. 
He  had  lived  a  very  ill  life,  and  been  much  disused  to 
the  ordinances  of  God,  by  reason  of  his  sea-faring  life; 
and  being  now  come  on  shore  sick,  and  being  above  a 
hundred  miles  from  his  abode  and  acquaintance,  he  fell 
into  great  want.  Upon  which  some  of  this  society,  per- 
ceiving his  distress,  recommended  him  to  the  rest;  and 
they  readily  allowed  him  a  weekly  pension  for  eight 
weeks  together,  till  he  was  recovered.  And  one  of  the 
society  being  a  chirurgeon,  carefully  dressed  a  very 
grievous  sore  which  he  had,  and  by  God's  blessing  re- 

"This  account  is  taken  from  Abbot's  "History  of  th«  Church  of 
England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century."  See  "History  of  the  Church  of 
England,"  Bev.  Thomas  Debarry,  M.  A.,  p.  282.  Also  Wakeman,  ibid, 
p.  419. 

212 


EARLY  PROTESTANT  BROTHERHOODS 

stored  it  to  perfect  soundness.  Others  of  them  went  to 
him  and  read  good  books  by  his  bed,  which  tended  to 
the  improvement  of  God's  visitation  upon  him;  they 
also  fetched  the  minister  of  the  place  to  him,  who  visited 
him  often,  and  prayed  by  him,  and  got  a  collection  from 
some  charitable  neighbors  for  him.  And  upon  the  whole 
he  recovered''  (well  he  might,  one  would  think),  *'and 
seemed  to  be  a  reformed  man,  and  came  there  to  render 
his  praises  to  God,  and  thanks  to  his  Christian  friends, 
for  that  which  had  been  done  for  him."^^ 

Such  success  attended  the  work  of  these  societies  that 
before  long  forty-two  of  them  existed  in  London  and 
"Westminster,  and  many  others  were  established  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  England  and  Ireland.  So  general  was  the 
interest  excited  by  them  that  Woodward's  work  on  the 
** London  Societies"  passed  into  six  editions  within  a 
very  few  years.  The  societies  were  not  without  perse- 
cution, being  attacked  by  certain  persons  **as  things 
leading  to  schism,  spiritual  pride,  and  many  other  ill 
consequences."  However,  the  young  men  vindicated 
themselves  both  by  their  able  apology  before  the  Bishop 
of  London  and  by  their  excellent  conscience  and  good 
works. ^^  During  the  reign  of  James  great  caution  was 
necessary.  The  society  for  prudential  reasons  became 
a  club,  and  home  meetings  were  surrendered  for  con- 
vocations at  a  place  whose  use  would  be  less  dangerous 
to  friends  of  Protestants.  Speaking  of  the  general  ef- 
fect of  these  organizations,  Ship  ton  says,  **They  had 
the  good  effect  of  binding  pious  members  of  the  Church 
of  England  together,  and  enabling  them  to  realize  that 
feeling  of  brotherhood  which  the  Christian  heart  loves 
to  give  play  to."^^    This  statement  is  based  on  Wood- 

"Not.  sup.,  p.  211. 

*2  "Organizations  of  young  men,  devout  and  given  to  good  -works, 
in  the  seventeenth  century  were  recognized  with  approval  by  Bishop 
Beveridge  as  well  as  by  Bishop  Ken,  by  Stillingfleet,  as  well  as  Tenison  '  * 
Bishop  of  Ripon,   article   "Brotherhoods,"   Contemporary  Review,   1890. 

"Op.  cit.,  xix. 

213 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

ward's  contemporary  testimony:  *' There  is  such  love 
amongst  those  of  them  that  have  fallen  under  my  obser- 
vation, that  scarce  any  natural  brothers  are  so  vigorously 
affectionate.  I  have  often  beheld  their  meeting  and 
parting  embraces  with  admiration;  and  those  who  are 
newly  admitted  are  soon  contracted  into  the  same  fel- 
lowship of  Christian  brotherhood.'* 

Chronological  order  leads  us  now  to  turn  again  to 
America,  and  to  note  that  in  1683  a  society  of  young 
men  was  formed  in  Boston  for  **ye  prevention  of  ye 
mischief  arising  from  vain  company,  and  as  a  nursery 
to  the  Church  there. ''^^  In  1694  Cotton  Mather  pub- 
lished **a  copy  of  the  orders  agreed,  used,  and  signed" 
by  a  similar  society  holding  meetings  in  his  neighbor- 
hood.^^ Membership  was  confined  to  persons  **  willing 
with  full  purpose  of  heart  to  cleave"  to  Christ.  Each 
Sunday  two  evening  hours  were  to  be  devoted  to  reli- 
gious exercises  with  occasional  consultations  concerning 
**some  question  of  practical  Christianity."  Members 
were  to  be  ** charitably  watchful  over  one  another,"  but 
those  who  fell  into  **any  scandalous  iniquity"  were  to 
be  suspended,  and  were  not  to  be  taken  back  without 
repentance.  Fortnightly  an  entire  evening  was  used  in 
prayer  *'for  the  conversion  and  salvation  of  the  rising 
generation  of  our  land." 

The  societies  called  sometimes  the  Cotton  Mather  So- 
cieties, because  of  his  active  relation  to  them  and  his 
propagation  thereof,^^  continued  to  increase  in  number, 
and  in  their  quiet  way  they  became  effective  instruments 
of  Christian  influence.     In  his  book  published  in  1710 

"•'Fifty  Years'  Work  Among  Young  Men  in  All  Lands,"  Ch.  Fer- 
mand,  Ed.,  p.  113. 

"  "Early  Religion,"  Dr.  C.  Mather,  Boston,  1694. 

"Cotton  Mather  "was  a  great  administrator.  A  biographer  s^ys: 
"He  believed  in  organizing  the  work  of  the  Lord;  throughout  his  life 
he  was  getting  together  prayer-meetings,  and  societies  for  the  suppression 
of  disorders;  working  with  the  commissioners  to  conyert  and  civilize  the 
Indians  and  so  on."     Wendell,  op.  cit.,  p.  187. 

214 


EARLY  PROTESTANT  BROTHERHOODS 

the  famous  Puritan  divine  says:  *' These  duly  managed 
have  been  incomparable  nurseries  to  the  Churches  where 
faithful  pastors  have  countenanced  them.  Young  men 
are  hereby  preserved  from  very  many  temptations,  res- 
cued from  the  paths  of  the  destroyer,  confirmed  in  the 
right  ways  of  the  Lord,  and  prepared  mightily  for  such 
religious  exercises  as  will  be  expected  from  them  when 
they  come  themselves  to  be  householders."^^  About 
1740  the  societies  were  much  stimulated  by  the  religious 
quickening  which  was  produced  by  the  preaching  of 
Jonathan  Edwards.  At  Dorchester,  Mass.,  one  of  these 
organizations  attained  the  record  for  the  longest  contin- 
uous life  of  a  society  of  men  of  Protestant  faith,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  from  1698  to  1848. 

Reverting  again  to  the  English  societies  previously 
considered,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  one  of  the  results  at- 
tained by  their  work  was  the  formation  of  many  So- 
cieties for  Reformation  of  Manners,  organizations  which 
social  conditions  badly  needed  and  for  whose  inaugura- 
tion and  conduct  agents  were  furnished  by  the  religious 
societies,  whose  members  also  aided  in  recruiting  their 
ranks.  This  reformatory  movement  was  instituted  by 
men  of  mature  age,  and  also  of  judgment  and  of  piety.^^ 
A  few  gentlemen  of  the  Church  of  England,  concerned 
because  of  the  iniquity  of  the  times,  decided  to  do  what 
they  might  to  suppress  it  by  invoking  the  authority  of 
the  laws.  They  studied  the  statutes,  drew  up  abstracts 
of  the  enactments  opposing  profanity  and  vice,  and 
formulated  rules  for  the  legal  prosecution  and  convic- 
tion of  offenders.    From  the  queen  they  obtained  in  1691 

*T  "Bonifacius,  or  Essays  to  r>o  Good,"  Cotton  Mather,  Boston, 
1710,  p,  81,  of  Burde  edition.  This  book  ran  through  nearly  twenty  edi- 
tions in  America  and  abroad.  Benjamin  Franklin  wrote  to  Samuel 
Mather,  "If  I  have  been  as  you  seem  to  think,  a  useful  citizen,  the 
public  owes  the  advantage  of  it  to  that  book."  "Memoir  of  Cotton 
Mather,  D.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,"  by  Samuel  G.  Drake,  M.  A.,  in  Hartford 
edition,   1855,     Mather's    "Magnalia  Christi  Americana." 

"  Shipton,  op.  cit,,  xx. 

215 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

a  letter  to  justices  of  the  peace,  directing  them  to  act  in 
accordance  with  the  needs  in  these  cases.  Many  persons 
in  various  parts  of  London  and  Westminster  were  armed 
with  blank  warrants,  and  the  religious  societies  zealously 
undertook  espionage  and  information.  Great  opposition 
was  excited  and  vicious  threats  were  made,  but  the  mem- 
bers held  fast,  and  they  were  warmly  aided  by  many  of 
the  clergy.  Swearers,  drunkards  and  Sabbath  breakers 
were  arrested  and  fined,  one  of  these  societies  spending 
in  a  single  year  £1,000  in  the  detection  and  punishment 
of  lewdness.  Some  twenty  societies,  distinct  from  the 
Church  brotherhoods,  but  chiefly  gathered  from  them, 
were. seeking  to  reform  London,  and  the  work  extended 
to  provincial  towns  and  to  Ireland,  continuing  with  re- 
verses and  successes  until  well  toward  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  undertakings  of  these  societies  were  approved 
by  John  Wesley.  In  Sermon  52  of  his  published  dis- 
courses he  gives  a  very  full  statement  of  their  origin, 
purposes,  and  achievements,  especially  after  the  revival 
of  their  work  in  1757  under  the  leadership  of  Mr.  W. 
Walsh.^^  During  the  five  subsequent  years  he  states  the 
number  of  persons  brought  to  justice  as  lawbreakers  as 
9,596,  and  during  the  next  year,  *'for  unlawful  gaming 
and  profane  swearing,  40;  for  Sabbath  breaking,  400; 
lewd  women  and  keepers  of  ill  houses,  550 ;  for  offering 
to  sale  obscene  prints,  2;  in  all,  10,588.  "^^  In  Mr.  Wes- 
ley's Journal  for  November  4,  1764,  is  a  memorandum 
in  which  he  says,  *'I  proposed  to  the  leaders  (of  his  so- 
cieties) the  assisting  the  society  for  the  reformation  of 
manners  with  regard  to  their  heavy  debt."^^  A  third 
passage  in  Mr.  Wesley's  writings  bemoans  the  ruin  of 
this  excellent  work  by  reason  of  unjust  litigation  in- 

"  The  society  to  which  this  sermon  was  addressed  was  compos.ed  of 
Churchmen  and  Dissenters.     Exeter  Hall  Lectures,  Vol.  I,  xxii. 

»"The  Works  of  the  Reverend  John  Wesley,  M.  A.,"  Vol.  I,  p.  460. 
»Ibid,  Vol.  IV,  p.  195. 

216 


EARLY  PROTESTANT  BROTHERHOODS 

volving  great  cost.^^  It  was  a  very  good  work  indeed, 
and  one  which  might  profitably  be  emulated  by  Chris- 
tian laymen  of  this  age,  who  too  largely  leave  all  mat- 
ters of  moral  protest  and  of  attack  upon  vice  to  the 
clergy,  to  inert  or  time-serving  authorities,  or  to  under- 
paid and  immature  agents  of  civic  and  philanthropic 
organizations. 

A  new  name  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  difference 
in  nature,  and  though  the  next  class  of  societies  to  which 
our  attention  is  drawn  is  found  to  bear  the  designation 
** Congregational  Fellowship  Associations,''  and  in  com- 
binations ** Fellowship  Unions,'*  it  is  evident  that  this 
type  of  organization  does  not  vary  widely  in  spirit  or 
purposes  from  some  of  the  foregoing.  The  origin  of 
Fellowship  Associations  may  be  traced  back  to  the  rev- 
olutionary settlement  of  1692,^^  and  particularly  in 
Scotland  they  have  come  down  to  modern  times  in  vigor 
and  in  usefulness.  These  societies  are  literally  Church 
brotherhoods,  being  represented  in  a  single  congregation, 
except  as  they  federate  for  common  purposes.  Meetings 
are  generally  held  on  Sunday  mornings,  the  object  be- 
ing the  religious  improvement  of  the  members,  and  their 
equipment  for  Christian  service  by  study  of  the  Word 
of  God.  From  the  first  the  members  engaged  in  devo- 
tional exercises,  including  Scripture  reading,  with  con- 
versation on  the  portions  read.  Essays  on  Biblical  sub- 
jects and  questions  about  Christian  doctrine  also  en- 
gaged the  attention  of  the  members.  In  some  cases  the 
Congregational  Fellowship  Associations  became  prayer- 
meetings  for  persons  of  both  sexes,  but  these  did  not 
long  survive.  A  modem  example  of  a  strong  Fellow- 
ship Union  is  that  of  Edinburgh.  Formed  in  1840  with 
twelve  Congregational  Associations  and  250  members, 
in  1890  it  celebrated  its  jubilee  with  76  associations  and 

«Ibid,  Vol.  IV,  p.  223. 

»  "Fifty  Years'  Work  Among  Young  Men,"  etc.,  ut&upra,  p.  175. 

217 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

2,784  members,  nearly  half  of  whom  were  actively  en- 
gaged in  Christian  service  as  teachers  or  officers  of 
church  societies.  This  well  illustrates  the  fact  that  these 
associations  have  proved  of  much  value  as  training- 
schools  for  Christian  workers. 

The  earliest  account  of  a  Christian  brotherhood 
among  college  men  of  Protestant  views  is  that  at  Har- 
vard University.  By  the  year  1706  some  students  at 
this  venerable  seat  of  learning  had  **  formed  a  society, 
which,  laying  to  heart  the  too  general  decay  of  serious 
piety  in  the  profession  of  it,  resolved  upon  essays  to 
speak  often  unto  one  another ;  or  carry  on  some  suitable 
exercises  of  religion  together,  wherein  they  might  prove 
blessings  not  only  unto  one  another,  but  unto  many 
more  whom  they  might  be  concerned  for.'' 

A  second  interesting  society  of  college  or  academy' 
men  was  that  at  Halle,  instituted  by  the  precocious  young 
Count  Zinzendorf  in  1715  or  1716.  Under  the  gracious 
influence  of  Francke,  who  as  president  stamped  his  de- 
vout pietism  upon  the  minds  of  many  of  his  pupils, 
Zinzendorf's  natural  religious  instincts  were  maturely 
cultured,  and  while  in  his  early  teens,  with  other  f  ellow- 
students,^*  among  whom  was  the  celebrated  Baron  Fred- 
eric von  Watteville  he  formed  the  *'Senf'korn  Orden,'* 
or  the  Order  of  the  Grain  of  Mustard  Seed,  based  on 
Mark  4 :  31,  32.25  The  purport  of  the  rules  of  this  order, 
which  are  still  extant,  are  **to  follow  Christ  in  walk  and 
conversation,  to  love  your  neighbor,  and  strive  for  the 
conversion  of  Jews  and  heathen. ' '  A  badge  was  adopted, 
consisting  of  a  shield  with  an  ^^Ecce  Homo''  and  the 

2*  "Memoir  of  Count  Zinzendorf,"  Enoch  Pond,  D.  D.,  p.  14.  A.  Boat, 
in  "History  of  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren,"  p.  114,  says  that 
Zinzendorf  "set  on  foot  private  meetings  for  prayer,  and  so  great  was 
his  zeal  in  this  work  that  on  leaving  Halle,  in  1716,  he  was  able  to 
deliver  to  Professor  Francke  a  list  of  seven  societies  of  the  kind  which 
he  had  originated  since  the  year  1710." 

^  See  account  in  "Sketches  of  Moravian  Life  and  Character,"  James 
Henry,  p.  62. 

218 


EARLY  PROTESTANT  BROTHERHOODS 

words,  *'His  wounds  our  healing."  The  two  young 
nobles  above  mentioned  and  two  others,  afterward  Rev. 
Mr.  Schaefer  and  Rev.  Mr.  Rothe,  especially  pledged 
each  other  to  a  life-long  devotion  to  the  Kingdom  of 
God  in  their  own  and  in  other  places,  and  they  became 
modern  revivers  and  virtual  founders  of  the  Unitas 
Fratrum,  a  Church  of  learning,  of  piety,  and  of  mis- 
sionary zeal,  better  known  as  the  Moravians.^* 

It  was  twenty  years  later  than  the  beginning  of  the 
Harvard  Society  that  a  serious  man,  whom  he  had  **  trav- 
eled many  miles  to  see,"  said  to  Mr.  John  Wesley,  then 
fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford:  **Sir,  you  wish  to 
serve  God  and  go  to  heaven.  Remember  that  you  can 
not  serve  Him  alone.  You  must  therefore  find  compan- 
ions or  make  them;  the  Bible  knows  nothing  of  solitary 
religion. "  ^'^  The  impression  of  these  words  never  left 
the  mind  of  their  hearer.  *'In  November,  1729,"  says 
Mr.  Wesley,  **four  young  gentlemen  of  Oxford  began 
to  spend  some  evenings  in  a  week  together,  in  reading 
chiefly  the  New  Testament. "  ^^  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  Godly  Club,  whose  history  is  so  well  known,  and 
out  of  which  grew  the  Churches  and  great  philanthro- 
pies of  Methodism.  Several  members  of  this  club  went 
as  missionaries  to  Georgia,  and  during  their  passages 
through  London  they  came  into  touch  with  the  religious 
societies  there,  of  which  Woodward  was  biographer.    At 

**  Supra,  p.  143.  "The  Ancient  and  Modern  History  of  the  Brethren," 
David  Cranz,  London,  1780,  p.  102.  Heckethorn,  "Secret  Societies  of 
All  Ages  and  Countries,"  Vol.  I,  p.  375,  has  a  strange  passiage:  "The 
Moravian  Brothers  of  the  Order  of  Religious  Freemasons,  or  0rd«r  of 
the  Mustard-Seed,  was  another  German  rite,  founded  in  1739.  Its 
mysteries  were  founded  on  the  passage  in  St.  Mark  4,  in  which  (Thrist 
compares  the  Kingdom  of  heaven  to  a  grain  of  mustard  seed.  The 
brethren  recognized  each  other  by  a  ring  inscribed  with  the  words,  'No 
one  of  us  lives  for  himself.'  The  jewel  was  a  cross  of  gold,  sur- 
mounted by  a  mustard-plant,  with  the  words,  'What  was  it  before? 
Nothing.'  "  The  origin  and  nature  of  these  statements  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  trace. 

2TE.  W.  Shipton,  op.  cit.,  xxvii. 

28  "The  Life  of  the  Rev.  John  Wesley,*'  Eichard  Watson,  p.  13, 
"Wesley's  Journal,  Works,"  Vol.  V,  p.  246. 

219 


CHBISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

the  Aldersgate  society  meeting  in  1738  it  was  that  Mr. 
John  Wesley  had  an  experience  of  which  he  says:  '*In 
the  evening  I  went  very  unwillingly  to  a  society  in 
Aldersgate  Street,  where  one  was  reading  Luther's  pref- 
ace to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  About  a  quarter  be- 
fore nine,  while  he  was  describing  the  change  which 
God  works  in  the  heart  through  faith  in  Christ,  I  felt 
my  heart  strangely  warmed.  I  felt  I  did  trust  in  Christ, 
Christ  alone  for  my  salvation;  and  an  assurance  was 
given  me  that  He  had  taken  away  my  sins,  even  mine, 
and  saved  me  from  the  law  of  sin  and  death. ''^^  It  is 
to  the  lasting  credit  of  the  little  brotherhoods  of  that 
day  that  it  could  be  said  of  their  influence  upon  John 
"Wesley,  **The  journals  of  this  good  man,  and  the  writ- 
ings of  his  contemporaries,  will  abundantly  prove  that 
he  found  his  earliest  and  best  coadjutors  amongst  the 
members  of  the  London  Young  Men's  Societies,  and 
that,  united  in  the  metropolis,  in  the  works  to  which 
they  and  he  had  before  devoted  themselves  in  their  sep- 
arate spheres — the  visitation  of  gaols,  hospitals,  and 
workhouses — ^they  were  permitted  to  gather  in  the  first- 
fruits  of  a  great  harvest,  *a  people  prepared  for  the 
Lord.'  "3« 

Before  coming  to  the  brotherhoods  which  open  the 
history  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  is  well  to  recall  an- 
other name  connected  with  the  English  religious  socie- 
ties, that  of  Samuel  "Walker  of  Truro,  who  formed  suc- 
cessful organizations  of  his  men,  following  mainly  the 
rules  of  Dr.  "Woodward.  It  is  said  of  this  good  man, 
who  passed  to  his  reward  in  1761,  **"We  see  his  mind 
intent  on  the  development  of  a  humble,  meek,  and  quiet 
spirit  amongst  his  people."  Long  after  his  departure 
the  societies  which  he  established  continued  their  useful 
labors.    Reference  should  also  be  made  at  this  point  to 

»  "Wesley's  Works,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  74. 
••Shipton,  op.  cit.,  xxviii. 

220 


EARLY  PROTESTANT  BROTHERHOODS 

Pastor  Meyenrock  of  Basle.  Among  the  German-speak- 
ing peoples  Church  brotherhoods  became  a  vigorous  fac- 
tor of  religious  life.  In  1768  Mr.  Meyenrock  united 
nine  men  for  the  continuous  study  of  the  Word  of  God, 
and  the  society  grew  and  found  imitators,  being  one  of 
the  precursors  of  the  great  system  of  independent  but 
federated  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations  which  in 
Germany  antedated  the  English  organization  by  several 
years.^^  Pastor  Karl  Auguste  Doring  of  Elberfeld  was 
another  ardent  spirit  who  sought  the  good  of  his  men, 
and  who  combined  them  in  1816  into  a  little  society 
called  Christlicher  Jiinglingsverein,  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association.  No  rules  or  statutes  were  im- 
pressed upon  this  body,  but  Pastor  Doring  was  inde- 
fatigable in  seeking  the  apprentices  and  other  men  in 
shops  and  factories,  and  gathering  them  into  religious 
fellowship. 

A  new  period  of  Christian  work  among  men  dawned 
with  the  life  and  works  of  that  remarkable  man,  David 
Naismith  of  Glasgow.  During  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  English  men's  societies  were  few 
and  somewhat  decadent.  The  Churches  were  taken  up 
with  the  wants  of  a  depraved  and  almost  brutalized 
public.  The  early  Methodists  were  engrossed  with  the 
organization  of  their  forces,  and  with  hasty  but  valiant 
assaults  on  the  common  enemy  of  unrighteousness. 
Even  out  of  this  dark  period,  however,  a  few  names  of 
useful  organizations  of  men  are  preserved,  *'The  Spital- 
fields  Benevolent  Society,"  ''The  Widows'  Friend  So- 

»iThe  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations  in  GTermany  for  a  long  time 
had  no  central  work  like  that  splendidly  housed  in  other  lands.  Each 
church  had  its  separate  Association,  and  each  denomination  its  own 
Union  of  Associations,  a  plan  which  is  still  in  part  operative.  In  1894 
a  writer  said:  "There  exists  also  in  Germany,  with  its  headquarters 
at  Hamburg,  a  large  Union  of  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations  con- 
nected entirely  with  the  Baptist  Church,  and  not  accepting  the  Paris 
basis.  This  includes  10  groups,  123  Associations,  and  2,087  members, 
and  has  a  monthly  organ  and  an  agent  who  has  now  been  at  work  for 
a  year.  There  is  also  a  Union  of  Methodist  Associations."  "Fifty- 
Years'  Work  Among  Young  Men,"  op.  cit.,  p.  53. 

221 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

ciety,"  and  *'The  Contending  Brethren  "^^  ^jgi^g  ^f  ^j^^ 
number.  Useful  charities  and  devout  pieties  character- 
ized not  a  few  men  of  times  which  certainly  were  far 
from  being  propitious,  teaching  the  lesson  that  Christian 
character  conquers  circumstances  and  ever  finds  oppor- 
tunity both  for  self -improvement  and  for  works  of  love. 

The  link  between  the  older  and  newer  Protestant 
men's  societies  is  David  Naismith,  who  made  important 
foundations  in  Glasgow,  in  London,  and  in  America. 
On  the  morning  of  January  1, 1824,  in  Hutcheson  Street, 
Glasgow,  this  zealous  Presbyterian  minister  gathered 
about  him  a  number  of  his  young  men  at  breakfast,  and 
these  he  organized  into  *'The  Glasgow  Young  Men's  So- 
ciety for  Religious  Improvement."  The  constitution 
sets  forth  this  object,  *'to  establish  and  promote  through- 
out the  city  and  suburbs  associations  of  Young  Men 
for  Mutual  Religious  Improvement."  The  members 
were  to  be  of  good  moral  character,  and  were  expected 
to  hold  no  opinions  subversive  of  evangelical  principles. 
The  Bible  was  the  rule,  politics  were  not  to  be  discussed, 
and  everything  was  to  be  in  conformity  with  Christian 
prudence  and  humility.  During  the  first  year  no  fewer 
than  fifteen  associations  of  this  kind  were  formed  in 
Glasgow,  and  they  continued  in  operation  until  merged 
into  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  as  was  the 
** Glasgow  Young  IMen's  Christian  Institute,"  formed  in 
1841,  which  for  some  time  ran  independently,  but  later 
joined  forces  with  the  others.^^ 

In  1830  David  Naismith  came  to  America,  and 
early  the  next  year,  at  his  suggestion,  the  American 
Young  Men's  Society  was  formed  and  undertook  as  a 
supervisory  board  "to  promote  the  moral  interests  of 
the  young  men  of  the  United  States  by  uniting  them 

^  One  can  not  help  the  comment  that  in  another  sense  of  the  name 
this  society  can  hardly  yet  he  regarded  as  heing  defunct. 

^  "Fifty  Years'  Work  Among  Young  Men,"  etc.,  op.  cit.,  p.  172. 

222 


EARLY  PROTESTANT  BROTHERHOODS 

into  associations  for  mutual  improvement  and  active 
Christian  and  benevolent  effort/'  An  address  was 
issued  from  New  York  City,  where  the  society  was  in- 
stituted, urging  the  erection  of  local  societies,  which  was 
done  in  some  thirty  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  The  design  of  the  various  local 
branches  differed  to  some  extent,  in  New  York  calling 
for  moral  and  intellectual  improvement,  in  Philadelphia 
for  moral  improvement  and  philanthropy.  The  large 
cities  were  districted,  and  effort  was  made  to  have  sub- 
organizations  in  all  districts.  The  society  at  New  York 
in  1832  published  a  paper  known  as  The  Young  Men's 
Advocate.  In  Philadelphia  meetings  were  held  for 
prayer  and  for  Bible  study,  and  some  for  the  study  of 
sciences  and  of  literature ;  strangers  were  provided  safe 
boarding  places  and  introduced  to  good  company;  or- 
phans w^ere  educated,  and  the  poor  helped;  Sunday 
school  and  church  attendance  was  fostered;  Bibles  and 
religious  literature  were  distributed;  total  abstinence 
from  the  use  of  liquor  was  advocated.  Nevertheless, 
owing  to  lack  of  effective  supervision,  the  Naismith  so- 
cieties in  America  were  short-lived ;  the  one  in  Montreal 
surviving  till  1838,  and  its  secretary  assisting  in  the 
American  organization  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association.^* 

David  Naismith  became  also,  in  1835,  the  founder  of 
the  famed  London  City  Mission,  and  on  the  evening  of 
the  same  day  of  this  institution,  in  the  home  of  Mr. 
George  Seeley,  in  Fleet  Street,  he  assembled  a  company 
of  young  men  to  form  the  Metropolitan  Young  Men's 
Society,  into  which  came  a  number  of  men  who  were 
later  of  great  prominence  in  Christian  work.  Weekly 
meetings  were  held,  but  the  tasks  assumed  were  mainly 
social;  and  as  little  aggressive  effort  was  put  forth  in 
behalf  of  the  young  men  of  tlie  city,  the  organization 

»*Ibid,  pp.  115,  116. 

223 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

ceased,  though  not  without  having  thrown  light  upon  the 
problems  of  men  and  having  inspired  the  formation  of 
other  societies.  The  most  valuable  of  these  was  the 
London  Young  Men 's  Society,  to  which  reference  is  made 
elsewhere  in  this  volume  and  which  was  a  precursor  both 
of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  of  the 
Church  of  England's  Men's  Society.  Aldersgate  Street, 
London,  already  mentioned,  continued  to  be  the  scene  of 
earnest  Christian  efforts,  which  were  thus  described  in 
1870  by  Mr.  J.  Ewing  Ritchie:  ''The  Young  Men's 
Scripture  Association  has  been  very  successful.  Nearly 
two  hundred  of  a  Sunday  afternoon  attend  the  Bible 
Class  in  Aldersgate  Street.  It  has  twelve  branches  in 
different  parts  of  the  city."^^ 

From  the  beginnings  outlined  in  this  chapter  have 
grown  the  various  brotherhoods  of  the  Protestant 
Churches  which  will  be  described  in  their  due  order, 
and  of  the  future  of  which  in  the  providence  of  God 
no  man  knoweth,  though  any  one  may  dream. 

^  "The  Religious  Life  of  London,"  p.  385. 


224 


xrv 

ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  AND  PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL 

The  chief  brotherhood  of  the  established  Church  in 
England  is  the  Church  of  England  Men's  Society.  This 
society  was  born  in  a  palace,  Lambeth,  and  its  founder 
was  the  chief  dignitary  of  the  Church,  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  at  whose  suggestion,  in  1896,  three  or- 
ganizations of  Churchmen  having  very  similar  aims 
were  merged  into  one  under  the  above  title.^  These 
three  societies  were  the  Church  of  England  Young 
Men's  Society,  the  Young  Men's  Friendly  Society,  and 
the  Men's  Help  Society.^ 

The  Church  of  England  Young  Men's  Society  was 
organized  in  1843,  the  year  before  the  date  commonly 
set  for  the  beginning  of  the  work  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association.^  Its  object  was  to  promote  the 
spiritual,  social,  and  intellectual  welfare  of  young  men. 

1  "What  Is  the  0.  E.  M.  S.,  and  What  Is  It  After?"  by  the  Right 
Reverend,   the  Bishop  of  Stepney,  p.   9, 

^  Tract,  "The  Church  of  England  Men's  Society,"  by  the  Bishop  of 
London. 

'W,  E.  Shipton,  in  "The  History  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  of  London,"  in  Exeter  Hall  Lectures  for  1845-46,  xxxv,  says: 
"Work  for  the  religious  good  of  young  men,  more  especially  directed 
to  the  circulation  of  missionary  intelligence  and  the  promotion  of  » 
missionary  spirit  amongst  the  junior  members  of  the  Church  of  England, 
was  commenced  about  the  end  of  1842  by  tvro  little  bodies  which  met 
respectively  in  the  east  and  west  of  London,  and  were  subsequently 
united  and  greatly  developed  under  the  title  of  'The  Church  of  England 
Young  Men's  Society  for  Aiding  Missions  at  Home  and  Abroad.'  With 
an  abbreviated  name,  and  more  general  objects,  it  exists  to-day  (1864); 
has  several  branches  in  the  metropolis,  and  more  in  the  provinces;  haa 
worked  always  for  the  best  objects,  in  an  earnest  spirit,  and  with  many 
very  blessed  results.  Numbers  of  its  members  have  filled  and  are  filling 
important  posts  as  ministers  or  missionaries  connected  with  the  National 
Church. ' ' 

15  225 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

An  Association  of  Lay  Helpers  for  the  Diocese  of  Lon- 
don was  formed  in  1865,  producing,  like  similar  organi- 
zations elsewhere,  a  force  of  lay  *' readers '*  and  other 
Christian  agents.  By  1870  the  London  association  had 
come  to  comprise  44  lawyers  and  medical  men,  141 
clerks,  48  mechanics  and  laborers,  and  156  unclassified, 
all  of  these  being  more  or  less  engaged  in  mission  serv- 
ices, Sunday  schools,  house-to-house  visitation,  teaching 
in  night  schools,  and  other  useful  exercises.*  A  Guild  of 
the  Holy  Standard  was  formed  in  1873,  for  the  avowed 
purpose  of  producing  a  higher  type  of  life  as  regards 
courage,  temperance,  purity,  and  manliness,  and  to  ex- 
ercise an  influence  for  good  among  young  soldiers.  The 
Young  Men's  Friendly  Society  in  1879  took  for  its  rule 
of  life  *'to  pray  to  God  every  day,  and  to  do  something 
to  help  forward  the  work  of  the  Church."  The  Church 
of  England  Working  Meij's  Society  was  constructed 
entirely  out  of  working  men  who  were  communicants 
and  who  sought  to  set  before  the  members  of  their  own 
class  Christianity  as  taught  by  the  Church  of  England, 
and  to  preserve  the  doctrines,  discipline,  and  usages  of 
the  Church. 

In  promoting  the  organization  which  combined  the 
greater  number  of  the  men's  societies  of  the  English 
Church  the  Bishop  of  London  wrote:  *'(1)  The  New 
Society  is  not  a  mere  amalgamation  of  three  old  socie- 
ties; it  aims,  it  is  true,  at  conserving  and  carrying  on 
the  different  objects  for  which  the  others  existed,  but 
it  also  aims  at  binding  together  and  forming  into  one 
great  brotherhood  all  men  who  are  professed  adherents 
of  the  Church  of  England.  (2)  Secondly,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  society  is  on  a  definitely  religious  basis.  Full 
members  are  communicants  of  the  Church  of  England, 
or  of  branches  of  the  Church  in  communion  with  her, 
and  associates  agree  to  keep  a  simple  Rule  of  Life — *to 

*  "The  Religious  Life  of  London,"  J.  Ewing  Ritchie,  p.  116  ff. 

226 


ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 

pray  to  God  every  day  and  to  do  something  to  help 
forward  the  work  of  the  Church.'  Men's  communicant 
guilds — whose  rules  of  life  and  membership  are  at  least 
lip  to  the  standard  of  those  required  by  the  C.  E.  M.  S. 
— can  join  at  once  throughout  the  country  as  full  mem- 
bers of  the  numerous  men's  Bible  classes,  societies,  or 
clubs — if  not  communicants — can  join  as  associates,  if 
willing  to  agree  to  the  Rule  of  Life,  and  can  become  full 
members  after  their  confirmation  and  first  communion. 
(3)  Thirdly,  while  thus  established  on  a  definitely  re- 
ligious basis,  the  society  is  to  be  elastic  in  its  working. 
Each  branch  may  do  what  it  likes  in  its  own  town  or 
parish;  on  the  one  side  it  may  throw  itself  into  the 
promotion  of  men's  services,  temperance  work,  Bible 
classes,  and  the  like;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  es- 
tablish clubs  for  working  men,  and  make  its  own  rules 
for  the  conduct  of  such.  It  may  admit  to  such  clubs 
and  institutions  whom  it  likes,  and  on  what  terms,  only 
safeguarding  this  fundamental  principle,  that  until  they 
become  members  or  associates,  they  have  no  voice  in 
managing  the  branch  of  the  Men's  Society  of  the  Church 
of  England.  (4)  The  society  has  therefore  a  mission- 
ary character.  There  is  no  greater  danger  than  that 
when  our  men,  and  especially  our  working  men,  become 
communicants,  they  should  become  self -regarding  and 
individualistic,  whereas  the  view  of  the  Church  is  that 
every  communicant  pledges  himself  to  be  a  worker.  The 
Men's  Society  lays  emphasis  on  this  principle,  and  the 
branch  in  each  place  is  to  be  an  active  center  of  work 
of  all  kinds  for  the  progress  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.'"* 
A  more  complete  statement  of  the  organization  and 
of  its  definite  purposes  opened  with  a  paragraph  which 
showed  the  close  relation  of  this  society  to  the  Church 
system.  It  was  entitled.  The  Churcli  of  England  Men's 
Society,  and  on  the  theme,  **What  it  is,"  the  explana- 

"Tr.  cit.  sup. 

227 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

tion  was  given:  ''A  society  of  which  the  archbishops  are 
the  presidents,  the  bishops  vice-presidents,  and  the 
Bishop  of  Stepney  the  chairman  of  the  council  and  ex- 
ecutive committee.  It  is  an  united  effort  on  the  part 
of  men  of  all  schools  of  thought  within  the  Church,  as 
will  be  evident  by  the  names  of  those  on  the  central 
council.  It  is  formed  to  promote  and  develop  the  work 
of  the  Church  of  England  among  men.  Doubtless  in 
many  parishes  very  noble  and  successful  efforts  have 
been  made,  and  are  continually  being  made,  to  meet 
this  great  need.  But  those  who  know  most,  and  are 
doing  most,  are  the  first  to  confess  that  we  are  only  at 
the  beginning  of  our  task.  This  effort  is  undertaken 
under  due  authority  upon  something  like  a  common 
plan  on  the  part  of  all  those — of  every  class,  and  of 
every  school  of  thought  within  the  Church — who  care 
that  the  men  of  England  should  be  won  for  God.  It 
is  a  question  not  merely  for  isolated  effort,  but  for  the 
whole  Church. '*« 

The  handbook  issued  by  the  Church  of  England 
Men's  Society  contained  the  following  table,  suggesting 
to  members  of  the  organization 


WAYS  OF   HELPING. 


Sunday  School. 

Teacher  (permanent). 

Teacher  (supernumerary). 

Librarian. 

Secretary. 

Helper  at  the  Catechism. 
Choir. 

Orchestra. 

Glee  Party. 
Sidesman  (for  special  occasions). 
Steward  (for  special  occasions). 
Bellringer. 
Helper  at  Mission  Services. 


Helper  at  Cottage  Services. 
Helper  at  Out-door  Services. 
Helper  at  Men's  Services. 
Work  Amongst  Boys. 

Bible  Class. 

Brigade. 

Athletics. 

Club,  with  Special  or  Technical 
Classes. 

Keeping  Order  in  Church. 
Temperance. 

Junior  Branch. 

Intermediate  Branch. 

Senior  Branch. 


""The    Idea   and   Method   of   the   C.    E.    M.    S.,' 
Society,  p.  3. 

228 


published   by    the 


ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 


Purity. 

White  Cross  League. 

Vigilance  Committee. 
Thrift. 

Benefit  Society. 

Penny  Bank. 

Auditor. 

Relief  Conunittee. 

Almoner. 
Secretary  to  some  Special  Mission. 
Helper  for  Foreign  Mission  Work. 
Helper  for  Home  Mission  Work. 
Helper  for  Men's  Bible  Study. 
Committees. 

Assistant  Clergy  Fund. 

Other  Funds. 

Entertainment. 

"Welcome." 

Games, 

Clubs. 

Anti-Smoking  Amongst  Boys. 

Anti-Gambling. 
Visiting. 

District. 


Infirmary. 
Hospital. 
Workhouse. 
Selected  Sick  Cases. 

Lay  Movement  for  Sunday  Wor- 
ship and  Rest. 

Correspondent. 
To  Keep  Touch  with  All  Ab- 
sent Members. 
To    Correspond    with    Other 
Branches    at     Home     and 
Abroad. 

Press. 

Distributor. 
Church  Notices. 
Parish  Magazine. 
Men's  Magazine. 
Invitations. 

Literary  Society. 

Mutual  Improvement  Society. 

Church  Gardening. 

Church  Carving. 

Church  Repairs,  Painting,  Plumb- 
ing, etc. 

Care  of  Church  Yard.' 


Even  a  hasty  glance  through  one  of  the  numbers  of 
the  magazine  which  is  published  as  the  society's  organ^ 
will  convince  the  reader  that  most  of  the  suggested  plan 
of  work  outlined  above  was  carried  out  in  actual  service 
in  various  parts  of  the  Church.  As  the  years  passed, 
the  Church  of  England  Men's  Society  broadened  out 
into  many  useful  departments  and  branches.  The  so- 
ciety traveled  abroad.  In  Scotland  it  became  known  as 
the  Scottish  (Episcopal)  Church  Men's  Society,  in  Ire- 
land as  The  Church  of  Ireland  Men's  Society.  In  Can- 
ada, Australia,  British  West  Indies,  India,  Newfound- 
land, New  Zealand,  South  Africa,  and  in  fact  wherever 
the  British  flag  floats  this  organization  established  itself. 

'•♦C.  E.  M.  S.  Handbook,"  p.  7. 

•"Men's  Magazine,"  pub.  in  London  by  the  Church  of  England 
Men's  Society. 

229 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

In  foreign  lands,  as  in  France,  for  example,  branches 
were  formed  in  the  Anglican  Churches.  Still  later  de- 
velopments were  federations  and  diocesan  unions  to  bind 
together  the  various  local  societies.  Valuable  adjuncts 
were  the  army  branches,  of  which  numerous  representa- 
tives were  located  in  British  garrisons  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  and  the  Seamen's  Guild,  established  in 
sea-ports  for  the  religious  instruction  and  care  of  sailors. 
In  various  cities  lodgings  secretaries  were  located,  and 
their  presence  and  proffered  assistance  to  fellow  church- 
men visiting  those  cities  or  removing  to  them  were  ad- 
vertised widely.  By  arrangement  emigrating  members 
of  the  society  were  met  in  countries  new  to  them  by 
chaplains  of  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowl- 
edge, and  their  badges  secured  for  them  instant  and  fa- 
vorable attention.  Summer  camp  retreats  were  main- 
tained each  year  by  the  Church  of  England  Men's  So- 
ciety, and  refreshment  both  for  body  and  soul  was  pro- 
vided in  these  institutions.  The  society  took  an  interest 
in  citizenship  and  in  matters  of  reformed  legislation.® 
Study  circles  with  special  reference  to  the  matter  of  dis- 
establishment have  recently  been  formed  in  many  places, 
and  graduates  go  forth  to  make  addresses  on  the  sub- 
ject. A  very  valuable  feature  of  work  in  this  society 
has  been  its  thoughtful  attention  to  correspondence  be- 
tween members  at  home  and  abroad.  Corresponding 
members  are  encouraged  to  an  increasing  interest  and 
activity,  and  besides  the  formation  of  pleasant  friend- 
ships the  result  is  an  interchange  of  ideas  which  leads 
to  a  better  understanding  of  the  general  movement  and 
of  local  branch  work. 

•"Men's  Magazine"  for  July,  1911,  p.  28,  gave  testimony  to  the 
interest  taken  in  the  Shop  Hours  Bill  of  that  year,  especially  in  its 
relation  to  the  Sunday  question.  Some  time  previously  the  Bedford 
Branch  organized  a  Laymen's  Association  for  Preventive  and  Rescue 
Work,  with  an  income  of  200  pounds  per  annum.  Undesirable  pictures 
and  postcards  were  opposed,  and  other  purity  work  was  undertaken  in 
this  and  in  other  branches. 

230 


ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Primarily  the  work  of  the  Church  of  England  Men's 
Society  is  spiritual.  Therefore  much  is  made  of  inter- 
cessions and  of  corporate  communions.  The  latter  are 
held  annually,  quarterly,  monthly,  or  as  the  branch  may 
elect.  In  the  opinion  of  some  leaders  corporate  com- 
munions may  be  held  too  frequently  to  be  most  im- 
pressive.^** A  strong  effort  is  being  made  to  foster  the 
practice  of  extempore  prayer,  and  a  suggestive  little 
folder  presents  daily  topics  for  praise  and  petition,  in- 
cluding also  some  formal  general  prayers  for  the  society, 
for  the  Kingdom  of  Christ,  and  for  the  empire." 

The  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew^^  is  not  without 
English  branches  which  have  done  good  work,  as  have 
not  a  few  societies  of  men  of  an  independent  and  local 
character,  and  in  England  was  founded  a  clerical  order, 
The  Society  of  Mission  Priests  of  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, which  was  instituted  at  Cowley,  in  1865,  and  was 
brought  to  America  in  1872.^*  **The  society  is  formed 
for  the  mutual  assistance  of  its  members  in  striving 
after  Christian  perfection,  obedience  to  our  Lord's  coun- 
sels, and  for  the  advancement  of  God's  glory  by  such 
mission  works  as  God  in  His  providence  may  suggest. 
Lay  brothers  are  associated  with  the  priests  in  dedica- 
tion of  life  and  work.  The  Mission  Church  of  St.  John 
the  Evangelist,  Boston,  Mass.,  is  the  center  of  the  so- 
ciety's work  in  the  United  States.  Among  external 
works  the  Fathers  give  themselves  especially  to  the 
preaching  of  missions  where  their  assistance  is  invited 
by  the  parochial  clergy,  and  the  conducting  of  retreats 

"Speakers  at  the  Annual  Conference  of  Federation  Secretaries  have 
emphasized  this  matter. 

""Quarterly  Intercession  Paper,"  published  in  London  by  the  So- 
ciety. 

"Vide  infra. 

"The  Society  (Cowley  Fathers)  has  done  good  work  in  various  parts 
of  Great  Britain,  in  India,  at  Cape  Town,  and  at  Boston  in  America, 
where  a  branch  house  was  established  in  1872.  "Monasticism,"  Wood- 
house,  p.  294. 

231 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

for  clergy,  religious  communities,  and  devout  lay  peo- 
ple. "^^ 

Another  American  clerical  order,  the  Society  of 
Mission  Clergy,  is  an  organization  whose  members,  al- 
though engaged  in  parochial  labors,  will  consent  to  con- 
duct each  year  a  limited  number  of  missions.  The  Con- 
gregation of  Companions  of  the  Holy  Savior  is  made  up 
of  priests  and  of  candidates  for  orders,  who  adopt  a 
rule  intended  to  strengthen  and  to  develop  their  spir- 
itual and  sacerdotal  life.  Retreats  are  conducted,  but 
the  work  is  mainly  parochial  in  its  nature.  The  Order 
of  the  Holy  Cross,  dating  from  New  York,  1881,  is  a 
society  for  both  priests  and  laymen,  and  which  seeks 
the  culture  of  the  spiritual  life  of  its  members,  and  the 
practice  of  good  works,  particularly  in  conducting  mis- 
sions, conferences,  and  retreats.  For  a  time  the  order, 
being  located  at  "Westminster,  Md.,  was  called  Order 
of  the  Holy  Cross  of  Westminster.  The  society  has 
charge  of  schools  for  boys,  and  it  has  an  adjunct  asso- 
ciation of  clerical  members  pledged  to  live  under  a  rule 
**  suited  to  their  condition  in  life."^^  This  society  was 
preceded  by  one  of  very  similar  name  and  purposes,  but 
of  unfortunate  history:  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  a  religious  community  established  in  1831  at 
Valle  Crucis,  N.  C,  by  Levi  Silliman  Ives,  at  one  time 
a  bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  The  order 
was  suppressed  because  of  its  tractarian  views  and  zeal, 
and  Mr.  Ives  entered  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  where 
he  received  a  warm  welcome  and  not  a  few  honors.^® 

The  Society  of  the  Atonement,  composed  of  clerical 
and  lay  members,  espoused  the  cause  of  education  and 
charity.    The  Brothers  of  Nazareth,  composed  of  Epis- 

"  "The  Living  Church  Annual, '*  The  Young  Churchman  Co.,  Mil- 
waukee,  Wis.,    "Religious   Orders." 

"  "Living  Church  Annual,"  "Religious  Orders,"  in  loco. 

""History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States,"  Shea, 
p.  440. 

232 


ANGLICAN  BEOTHERHOODS 

copal  laymen,  and  established  in  1886,  took  for  its  ob- 
jects prayer  and  manual  work.  *' Persons  living  in  the 
world  desiring  to  further  the  objects  of  the  brother- 
hood*' were  made  associates.  Among  the  historic  works 
of  the  society  may  be  named  De  Peyster  Home  for  con- 
sumptive men  and  boys,  All  Saints'  Convalescent  Home, 
St.  Andrew's  Cottage,  and  the  Mother  House  at  Ver- 
bank,  N.  Y. 

The  Seabury  Society  of  New  York  is  a  missionary 
organization  whose  idea  is  to  train  laymen  for  Church 
work.  It  maintains  for  this  purpose  the  Church  Work- 
ers' Commons,  it  has  a  corps  of  missionary  speakers, 
and  it  offers  to  the  archbishop  a  force  of  lay  readers  for 
such  service  as  he  may  desire.  The  declared  aims  of  the 
Seabury  Society  are  even  greater  in  their  scope  than 
this  program  suggests,  being  no  less  than  **to  enlist 
and  instruct  laymen  to  do  specific  work,  outside  of 
business  hours,  to  spread  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  to 
do  a  layman's  share  to  strengthen  the  Church  in  Amer- 
ica to  the  end  that  it  may  be  the  better  able  to  take 
the  Church  to  all  America,  and  to  all  the  world." 

In  the  first  nine  years  of  its  history  the  Seabury 
Society  brought  into  existence  eighteen  parishes  and 
missions  in  New  York  City,  all  of  which  were  soon  self- 
supporting.  It  is  felt  by  many  clergymen  and  laymen 
of  the  Church  that  this  organization  has  proved  its  fit- 
ness to  labor  and  to  receive  high  praise.  The  Seabury 
Society  is  one  of  the  most  successful  of  a  number  of  Lay 
Helpers'  Associations  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  of 
which  it  has  been  truly  said,  *'The  effective  work  which 
these  associations  have  accomplished  has  had  no  small 
share  in  the  remarkable  growth  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States  in  recent  years.  "^^ 

Before  passing  to  the  discussion  of  the  history  and 
work   of   the   foremost   Episcopalian   men's   movement 

"Se«  "Oongregationalist,"  Brotherhood  Number,  1908. 

233 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

of  America,  it  may  be  remarked  that  a  tendency  has 
often  been  manifested  in  Anglican  circles  to  encourage 
the  formation  of  monastic  communities.  The  ardent 
reformer,  Latimer,  desired  the  continuance  of  religious 
orders.^^  A  considerable  part  of  the  protest  against 
Henry  YIII's  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  and  con- 
fiscation of  their  properties  came  from  other  sources  than 
from  their  inmates  and  co-religionists.  During  the 
seventeenth  century  men's  societies  were  approved  by 
authorities  of  the  English  Church,  and  while  these  were 
not  ascetic  or  cenobitic  organizations,  they  carried  out 
some  details  of  the  purpose  of  such  institutions.^*  The 
famous  Little  Gidding  community  of  Nicholas  Ferrar, 
of  Virginia  plantation  fame, — **a  Protestant  saint,*' 
John  Fiske  calls  him^" — was  for  both  sexes.  Established 
in  1626  and  breaking  up  not  long  after  Ferrar 's  death, 
in  1637,  it  presents  a  beautiful  example  of  a  consecrated 
Christian  family  of  a  touchingly  devout  character.  To 
the  establishment  of  this  institution  Ferrar  was  much 
inspired  by  his  intimate  friend,  the  saintly  poet  George 
Herbert.  The  confraternity  at  Little  Gidding  *'gave 
no  entertainment,  but  to  the  Poor,  whom  they  instructed 
first,  and  then  relieved,  not  with  Fragments,  but  with 
the  best  they  had.  Their  business  was  either  Prayers 
or  Work;  nothing  came  between  them;  the  Devil  has 
less  Power  to  tempt  them,  that  he  never  found  them 
idle.  Their  diet  at  meals  was  soon  drest,  as  they  sat 
not  long  at  them;  their  bread  was  coarse,  their  drink 
small.  Alms  and  Fasting,  Prayers  and  Watching,  with 
Reading  and  Singing  Psalms,  were  continually  in  their 
Practice ;  there  was  no  Intermission,  day  or  night.    By 

"Art.  "Brotherhoods,"  Bishop  of  Ripon,  "Contemporary  Review," 
1890. 

"  See  supra,  p.  211. 

2" ''Old  Virginia,"  Fiske,  p.  205.  The  name  is  spelled  both  Ferrar 
and  Farrar. 

234 


ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 

night  they  kept  watch  in  the  House  of  the  Lord,  and 
two  by  turns  did  supply  the  Office  for  the  rest."^^  The 
household  comprised  *'a  Congregation  of  Saints,  not 
walking  after  the  flesh,  but  after  the  Spirit;  a  family 
of  the  Farrars,  the  Mother  with  Sons  and  Daughters, 
other  branches  of  the  Kindred,  with  Servants.  "^^ 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  some- 
w^hat  heated  discussion  took  place  in  the  English  Church 
with  reference  to  brotherhoods,  and  several  institutions 
more  or  less  monastic  in  nature  arose  both  in  England 
and  in  America.^^  One  of  the  most  famous  foundations 
of  this  nature  was  Llanthony  Abbey,  established  in 
Wales  by  Joseph  Leycester  Lyne,  born  in  1837,  known 
as  *' Father  Ignatius,"  or  *^ Ignatius  of  Jesus, '^  an  Eng- 
lish clergyman  and  author  who  took  deacon's  orders  in 
the  Church  of  England,  spent  some  time  in  London  mis- 
sions, and  then  decided  to  found  a  community  of  Prot- 
estant Benedictines.  This  he  succeeded  in  doing,  and 
he  gathered  a  few  disciples,  but  the  order  did  not  spread 
widely.  Father  Ignatius  was  a  devout  man  and  an  ex- 
ceptional preacher  of  the  evangelical  faith.  He  became 
widely  popular,  and  in  1890  he  visited  America,  where 
Churches  of  many  denominations  received  his  ministry 
with  enthusiasm,  but  a  portion  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal bishops  declined  to  admit  him  to  their  churches. 
Father  Ignatius  attacked  evils  which  he  found  to  have 
grown  up  in  the  American  Church,  and  this  accounts 
in  part  for  the  division  over  him.  He  was  as  warmly 
defended  by  many  churchmen  as  he  was  opposed  by 
others.  The  President  of  the  United  States,  Benjamin 
Harrison,  entertained  *'the  Protestant  Monk,''  and  the 

21  Testimony  of  Archbishop  Williams,  *  'Life  of  George  Herbert,"  So- 
ciety for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  p.  273.  Account  of  "Little 
Gidding,"   pp.  266-289. 

»Ibid,  p.  272.  .  .     ^       A 

2»An  argument  in  the  negative,  written  with  conservatism,  is  found 
in   "Macmillan's,"   March,   1891,   topic,    "Brotherhoods." 

235 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

family  of  the  chief  magistrate  Jistened  to  his  spiritual 
counsels  with  warm  approval.^*  Among  the  published 
works  of  Father  Ignatius  are  **The  Catholic  Church  of 
England/'  ''Leonard  Morris,  or  the  Benedictine  Monk/' 
*' Mission  Sermons  and  Orations/'  and  ''Tales  of  the 
Monastery. ' ' 

Other  Anglican  monastic  communities  are  on  record 
in  such  writings  as  that  of  Woodhouse,  who  enumerates 
quite  a  list  of  these  societies,  including  several  of  the 
names  mentioned  in  this  chapter.^^  He  speaks  of  Pusey 
House  at  Oxford,  Bethnal  Green  Mission,  the  Missionary 
Brotherhood  formed  in  1877  at  Cambridge  and  working 
in  India,  the  Brotherhood  of  a  similar  nature  in  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and  the  Society  of  St.  Paul,  originally 
founded  at  Calcutta  under  Father  Hopkins,  and  re- 
moved to  England  about  1895,  consisting  of  '^priests 
and  laymen  separated  and  consecrated  to  the  service  of 
God,  and  our  sailors  in  holy  religion.'*  The  above 
named  authority  describes  also  the  work  of  the  Church 
Army,  which,  while  not  monastic,  has  principles  and 
motives  of  a  similar  nature :  "  a  desire  to  imitate  Christ, 
and  to  follow  Him  literally  in  His  precepts  and  prac- 
tice. There  is  a  band  of  lay  evangelists,  whose  work  is 
not  unlike  that  of  the  preaching  friars  in  their  early 
and  purer  days.  These  are  regularly  trained  in  well- 
ordered  houses  and  are  then  sent  out  into  the  low  parts 
of  great  cities  and  the  remote  districts  of  the  country 
to  hold  personal  intercourse  especially  with  men,  to 
teach  them  the  elements  of  godliness,  and  to  be  their 
friends  in  every  way."^®  The  lay  Brotherhood  of  the 
Imitation  of  Jesus  is  considered  elsewhere.^^ 

^Vide  "Father  Ignatius  in  America,"  a  naive  account  of  experi- 
ences and  of  sermons  delivered,  written  by  one  of  the  little  company 
which  attended  Ignatius,  and  who  subscribes  himself,  Father  Michael 
David,  O.  S.  B.,  Monk. 

*5  "Monasticism,"  Rev.  F.  C.  Woodhouse,  M.  A.,  p.  294  ff. 

a»Ibid,  p.  297. 

^^  Infra,  chap,  xx, 

236 


ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  foregoing  must  be  taken  as  a  type  of  thought 
which  persists  in  the  Anglican  Churches,  rather  than  as 
representing  a  widespread  movement.  In  the  face  of 
many  discussions  and  resolutions  of  the  most  important 
Church  councils,28  and  despite  the  actual  attempts  made 
at  their  institution,  ascetic  and  cenobitic  bodies  are  rare 
and  feeble  in  the  English  Churches,  and  the  strength  of 
the  Church  is  drawn  largely  to  such  more  active  and 
practical  brotherhoods  as  that  with  which  this  chapter 
opens,  and  the  very  successful  religious  fraternity  with 
which  the  account  of  societies  of  Anglican  men  will  be 
concluded.^^ 

In  general  extension  and  in  good  fame  the  leading 
men's  organization  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
of  America  is  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew.  This 
society  of  laymen  is  a  strong  and  effective  body  of  bap- 
tized churchmen  working  among  men  of  all  ages.  It 
is  generally  recognized  in  the  Church  as  a  spiritual 
force. 

Few  stories  of  religious  movements  are  more  un- 
usual and  romantic  than  that  of  the  founding  of  this 
brotherhood.^^  A  dilapidated  and  wretched  drunkard 
one  day  came  to  the  rector  of  St.  James'  Church,  Chi- 
cago, appealing  for  help.  He  had  just  drifted  into 
town  on  a  freight  car,  and  the  rector.  Dr.  Courtney, 
**a  true  man,"  did  not  know  what  to  do  with  him.  He 
could  not  take  him  into  his  home,  neither  could  he  go 
to  live  with  and  watch  over  the  drunkard.  The  vestry 
of  his  church  had  no  use  for  such  creatures,  neither 

28Woodhouse,  ibid,  303-306,  quotes  many  record  mimites  of  Church 
Convocations  concerning  the  desirability  of  community  life. 

^  In  other  branches  of  Protestantism  the  Monastic  principle  has  been 
little  recognized.  Among  its  exceptional  instances  may  be  named  the 
religious  communities  of  the  Lutheran  Church  at  Kaiserwerth  and  Stras- 
bourg, and  those  of  the  French  and  Swiss  Reformed  Churches  at  Paris 
and  Ech€llins.  Societies  of  Deaconesses  living  in  cenobitic  relations  but 
■without  irrevocable  vows  exist  among  the  Methodists  and  elsewhere. 

"•Mr.  Houghteling's  own  account  may  be  found  in  "St.  Andrew's 
Cross,"  November,  1905,  and  in  "Methodist  Men,"  December,  1910. 

237 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

would  most  of  the  young  men  connected  with  the  parish 
take  any  interest  in  a  sot.  As  a  dernier  ressort  the 
rector  turned  to  a  little  class  of  half -grown  boys  taught 
by  Mr.  James  L.  Houghteling,  a  man  who  was  not  only 
a  loyal  and  spiritual  worker  in  his  own  Church,  but  who 
had  also  much  experience  in  the  work  of  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association.^^  This  class  met  in  an 
ancient  attic  under  a  hole  in  the  plastered  ceiling,  by 
whom  made  not  stated,  where  the  members  were  accus- 
tomed to  discuss  the  Word  of  God  in  ways  wholly  their 
own.  The  teacher  was  but  lately  out  of  college,  and 
his  confession  that  he  knew  more  of  *'what  men  usually 
learn  in  college"  than  of  the  Word  of  God  will  find  an 
echo  in  many  a  man's  experience.  To  this  teacher  and 
his  young  men  the  rector  came,  saying:  **For  Heaven's 
sake  do  what  you  can  for  this  man.  I  am  supporting 
him,  and  he  comes  to  me  every  night  and  tells  his  woes. 
Now,  can't  you  and  your  boys  hedge  him  about  some- 
how, and  help  to  shore  him  up?" 

They  took  the  drunkard  in.  Through  several  ses- 
sions of  the  class  he  slept  the  sleep  of  the  inebriate,  and 
his  stertorous  breathing  must  have  been  anything  but 
a  fitting  accompaniment  to  the  lesson.  On  one  of  his 
wakeful  days,  however,  he  told  his  new-found  friends 
that  when  he  was  a  young  man  in  an  Episcopal  Church 
in  a  distant  city  he  belonged  to  a  Society  of  Andrew 

^It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  religious  experience  of  the  founder 
of  St.  Andrew's  Brotherhood  was  like  that  of  many  another  normal 
young  man.  A  writer  in  the  "Waterbury  American"  (See  "St.  Andrew's 
Cross,"  April,  1911),  says:  "We  have  in  mind  a  man  who  has  recently 
died,  the  late  James  L.  Houghteling,  of  Chicago,  who  devoted  a  large 
part  of  his  life  to  the  promotion  of  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  of 
the  Episcopal  Church,  a  Brotherhood  of  which  he  was  the  founder. 
Those  who  knew  Mr.  Houghteling  in  his  Yale  days,  and  just  following, 
would  never  have  anticipated  this  career  for  him.  He  was  a  man  of 
society,  a  man  of  business,  a  man  of  the  world.  But  the  call  of  St. 
Andrew  camo  to  him  and  he  found  time  and  opportunity  in  the  midst 
of  a  busy  life  to  extend  the  Kingdom  of  God  in  a  practical  way."  The 
writer's  personal  acquaintance  and  interviews  with  Mr.  Houghteling  im- 
pressed him  that  here  was  a  gentleman,  indeed,  who  had  developed  into 
a  whole-hearted,  modest  fidelity  to  Christianity  and  to  the  Church. 

238 


ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 

and  Philip.  When  asked  for  particulars  he  explained, 
**You  remember  that  Andrew  was  the  man  who  first 
found  his  own  brother,  Simon,  before  he  did  anything 
else,  and  brought  him  to  Jesus,  and  that  Philip  was 
the  man  that  found  his  particular  friend,  Nathaniel, 
before  he  did  anything  else,  and  brought  him  to  Jesus." 
With  this  the  old  wreck  had  made  his  last  lurch  toward 
his  former  good  life.  Soon  after  he  died  in  jail  as  the 
result  of  a  drunken  debauch.  *'Yet,"  says  Mr.  Hough- 
teling  in  his  account  of  the  beginning  of  the  brother- 
hood, **  through  the  word  of  this  man  God  stirred  up 
the  wills  of  that  little  company,  that  dozen  of  insig- 
nificant folk,  so  that  they  started  out  to  do  something. 
The  place  for  old  men  in  that  parish,  if  they  wanted 
to  do  anything,  was  on  the  vestry.  The  place  for  young 
men  in  that  parish,  if  they  wanted  to  do  anything,  was 
in  the  Sunday  school.  And  the  vestry  was  full,  and  the 
Sunday  school  was  full.  There  didn't  seem  to  be  any 
opportunity.  But  the  Lord  stirred  them  up  to  will  that 
something  must  be  done,  and  that,  God  helping  them, 
they  would  each  do  the  thing  that  he  was  best  qualified 
to  do.  And  as  a  boy  of  seventeen  did  not  seem  to  be 
best  qualified  to  teach  little  boys  and  girls  in  the  Sun- 
day school  or  to  serve  on  the  vestry,  and  did  seem  best 
quaKfied,  by  every  instinct  of  common  sense  and  com- 
mon sympathy,  to  lend  a  hand  to  other  boys  of  seven- 
teen, it  did  seem  to  them  that  what  they  had  to  do 
was  for  each  one  to  go  out,  after  the  manner  of  Andrew 
and  Philip,  and  get  hold  of  his  brother  or  his  friend 
and  bring  him  within  the  hearing  of  the  gospel  of 
Jesus  Christ." 

There  is  a  word  which  says  that  God  uses  **  things 
which  are  not  to  bring  to  naught  things  that  are." 
What  better  example  of  this  than  the  one  before  us? 
On  St.  Andrew's  Day,  1883,  the  dozen  young  men  of 
Mr.  Houghteling's  class  formed  an  agreement  to  follow 

239 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

the  example  set  by  St.  Andrew  in  bringing  his  brother 
into  the  Messiah's  presence  and  friendship.  This  action 
met  with  the  warm  approval  of  Rev.  W.  H.  Vibbert, 
D.  D.,  the  new  rector,  so  that  the  new  movement  was 
from  the  first  a  recognized  parochial  guild.  The  mem- 
bers adopted  two  rules:  (1)  That  of  prayer,  **to  pray_ 
daily  for  the  spread  of  Christ's  Kingdom  among  young 
men,"  and  (2)  that  of  service,  *Ho  make  an  earnest 
effort  each  week  to  bring  at  least  one  young  man  within 
the  hearing  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  as  set  forth 
in  the  services  of  the  Church  and  in  young  men's  Bible 
classes."  *'How  far  a  little  candle  throws  its  beams!" 
This  movement  from  the  first  attracted  interested  and 
sympathetic  attention.  Prejudice,  of  course,  did  not 
fail  to  assert  its  opposition,  and  conservatism  caused 
many  to  hesitate  until  some  history  should  be  made. 
However,  the  year  1886  found  thirty-five  scattered  pa- 
rochial guilds  which  had  adopted  similar  rules  and 
were  ready  for  a  general  organization,  which  was  then 
formed  under  the  title  of  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  An- 
drew of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  in  Canada  was  or- 
ganized in  Toronto,  June  9,  1890.  The  organization  in 
Scotland  was  formed  on  St.  Andrew's  Day,  1891;  in 
England,  June  12,  1898 ;  in  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America,  April,  1896. 

The  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  works  only  by  the 
approval  and  under  the  leadership  of  the  clergy.  Chap- 
ters can  not  be  established  elsewhere  than  in  parishes, 
missions,  and  educational  institutions  of  the  Church, 
and  only  with  the  written  consent  of  the  rector  or  min- 
ister in  charge.  In  all  local  matters  the  chapters  are 
independent,  but  are  related  and  dependent  with  ref- 
erence to  interests  and  obligations  of  general  impor- 
tance.    All  baptized  men  are  eligible  to  membership, 

240 


ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 

but  there  is  no  general  membership.  Each  affiliated  in- 
dividual acquires  membership  through  a  local  chapter. 
The  Brotherhood  in  the  United  States  holds  a  largely- 
attended  annual  convention,  bringing  together  men  from, 
all  parts  of  the  country  for  common  worship,  for  in- 
struction from  Church  leaders,  and  for  mutual  discus- 
sion. Churchly  features  are  prominent  at  these  gather- 
ings. Especially  is  much  made  of  the  annual  corporate 
celebration  of  the  Holy  Communion,  which  is  regarded 
as  the  most  noteworthy  and  significant  item  in  the  con- 
vention program.  Smaller  conventions  in  various 
States  or  dioceses  are  sometimes  held,  where  time  per- 
mits more  particular  detail  in  discussion  of  chapter  in- 
terests and  endeavors.  Local  assemblies  have  been 
formed  in  many  cities  and  neighborhoods  to  promote 
better  acquaintance  and  closer  co-operation  among 
churchmen.  The  officers  of  all  of  these  organizations 
seek  to  aid  the  general  work  by  counseling  the  active 
chapters,  by  visiting  and  aiding  the  weak,  and  by  assist- 
ing in  the  establishment  of  new  work. 

The  following  suggestive  subjects  for  use  in  ad- 
dresses on  the  occasion  of  chapter  visitation  were  em- 
ployed by  the  Philadelphia  Local  Assembly  in  instruct- 
ing the  visitors  sent  out:  *'The  Practice  of  Prayer:  1. 
Prayer  in  chapter  meetings — general  devotions  and  spe- 
cific petitions.  2.  A  suggested  plan  to  make  personal 
daily  prayers  unite  with  those  of  the  entire  chapter  to 
accomplish  specific  work.  3.  Chapter  methods  to  de- 
velop the  prayer  life.  4.  Making  the  most,  spiritually, 
of  the  corporate  communion.  5.  The  constant  use  of 
prayer.  6.  A  boy's  entrance  into  the  prayer  life.  7. 
How  to  use  the  prayer  book  effectively — personally  and 
for  others.  8.  Bible  foundations  for  all  manner  of 
prayer.  9.  Concentration  in  prayer.  Realization  of 
God's  presence.  10.  The  best  books  on  prayer. ' '  *' Per- 
sonal Work:  1.  Personal  work  as  an  obligation  and  as 
16  241 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

a  privilege.  Its  relative  position  in  chapter  life.  2.  The 
methodical  treatment  of  personal  work.  Our  'Father's 
Business' — in  assignment,  report,  and  personal  plans. 

3.  Opportunities  for  personal  work — ^natural  and  made. 

4.  Scattering  weekly  personal  efforts  compared  with  per- 
sistent continued  work.  Possibilities  within  the  congre- 
gation and  with  week-day  associates.  5.  How  personal 
work  may  be  brought  into  the  various  kinds  of  corporate 
work.  6.  Sick  visiting.  Personal  work  through  corre- 
spondence. 7.  The  use  of  prayer  in  personal  work.  8. 
Training  others  in  brotherhood  work,  by  *two  and  two' 
visiting. ''^2 

The  National  Convention  appoints  a  council  which 
has  general  supervision  of  the  brotherhood,  and  which 
maintains  an  office  as  headquarters  for  the  society,  and 
from  it  literature  is  issued  and  correspondence  directed. 
The  council  has  published  from  1886  a  valuable  inter- 
national monthly  called  St.  Andrew's  Cross.  A  very 
considerable  list  of  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  publi- 
cations not  only  furnish  needed  supplies  for  the  prac- 
tical affairs  of  chapters,  but  religious  culture  and  teach- 
ing in  philanthropy. 

Parochial  chapters  of  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew 
are  organized  with  extreme  simplicity.  Emphasis  is 
nowhere  placed  upon  numbers;  indeed,  effort  is  made 
to  keep  the  enrollment  down  to  those  only  who  have 
a  definite  spiritual  purpose  in  engaging  upon  and  in 
continuing  in  the  affairs  of  the  brotherhood.^^  The  fol- 
lowing represents  the  advice  given  to  organizers  during 
the  earlier  years  of  the  movement : 

**Don't  admit  a  man  to  membership  because  he  is 
a  pleasant  fellow,  because  he  wants  to  come  in,  because 
some  one  has  nominated  him  and  will  be  hurt  if  he  is 
not  chosen,  because  of  his  money  or  social  position,  or 

*=*  "St.  Andrew's  Cross,"  February,  1911. 

^3  " Church  and  Young  Men,"  Cressey,  p.  115. 

242 


ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 

for  any  reason  at  all  except  that  he  is  fitted  to  do  good 
work  in  the  chapter  for  the  spread  of  the  Kingdom 
among  young  men. 

''Don't  let  a  man  in  simply  because  he  has  been 
brought  to  church  by  some  member  of  the  chapter  or 
simply  because  you  want  to  do  him  good.  The  chapter 
it  not  to  be  a  field  for  missionary  work,  but  a  body  of 
missionary  workers. 

''Don't  let  a  man  in  without  the  good-will  of  the 
members  with  whom  he  is  to  work,  and  the  hearty  ap- 
proval of  the  parish  priest  who  is  to  guide  his  spiritual 
efforts. 

**In  general,  go  very  slowly  in  admitting  members. 
Admit  no  one  without  a  good  reason  for  it.  Don't 
let  the  chapter  get  large  and  unwieldy.  Consider  the 
size  of  the  parish,  the  amount  of  work  on  hand,  the 
ability  of  the  chapter  officers  to  keep  men  together,  and 
then  judge  accordingly.  Not  every  parish  has  work 
enough  for  a  large  chapter.  In  some  cases  it  might  be 
well  to  put  a  limit  on  the  number  of  members  and  to 
make  brotherhood  membership  an  honor  worth  waiting 
for.  In  the  case  of  each  candidate  let  the  question  be 
not  'Why  should  he  not  be  admitted?'  but  'Why  should 
he  be  admitted?'  "^^ 

The  strength  gained  by  such  a  selective  principle  is 
easily  apparent.  On  the  other  hand,  who  can  doubt 
that  exclusiveness,  if  not  caddishness,  may  result  in  cases 
where  the  wrong  spirit  gets  in  at  the  start?  That  this 
has  actually  happened  in  some  instances  is  indicated  by 
the  following  doubtless  much  exaggerated  statement, 
"If  you  go  into  most  of  our  chapters,  they  are  a  kind 
of  inner  circle  of  fellows  who  are  about  equal  socially, 
and  when  a  new  man  comes  in  there  he  is  met  on 
chapter-meeting  night,  and  he  is  taken  with  the  other 

«*From  pamphlet  "Brotherhood  Membership,"  published  by  the 
Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew. 

243 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

fellows  to  the  brotherhood  work,  but  when  it  comes  to 
meeting  him  in  other  places  he  is  not  met."^^ 

A  good  feature  of  the  quality  rather  than  quantity 
ideal  of  membership  is  that  a  few  men  have  the  courage 
to  begin  and  the  good-will  to  maintain  an  organization. 
The  w^riter  once  asked  an  Episcopal  rector  whom  he  met 
on  a  train  and  who  wore  the  St.  Andrew's  cross,  how 
many  men  he  had  in  his  chapter.  *' Three,"  was  the 
reply,  with  the  added  comment,  *'That  's  all  the  men 
I  have  who  are  fit  to  be  in.''  Certainly  no  one  could 
fail  to  admire  a  discrimination  so  rigid,  and  a  fidelity 
which  in  an  exceptionally  little  parish  would  maintain 
a  chapter  without  fit  men  enough  for  the  usual  offices. 
Nor  should  there  be  the  least  question  that  three  men 
and  a  pastor,  banded  together  in  the  ties  of  a  signifi- 
cant and  determined  fraternity,  under  divine  direction, 
may  accomplish  a  great  work  in  any  community. 

AU  chapters  of  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  are 
required  to  conduct  their  work  as  a  truly  spiritual  un- 
dertaking, and  it  is  understood  that  they  shall  not  man- 
age entertainments,  fairs,  and  similar  functions.  Social 
work  is,  however,  conducted  by  some  branches.  These 
methods  of  service  are  encouraged:  *' Daily  prayer,  per- 
sonal influence,  invitations  to  church  services,  showing 
cordial  attention  to  men  who  attend  them,  visiting  men 
in  their  homes,  distributing  notices  of  services,  provid- 
ing mission  services,  conducting  Bible  classes,  endeavor- 
ing to  bring  men  to  Baptism  and  Confirmation,  bring- 
ing back  to  the  Holy  Communion  those  who  have  be- 
come negligent,  and  trying  in  all  relations  of  life,  busi- 
ness, social,  or  religious,  to  exert  a  wholesome  manly  in- 
fluence on  those  with  whom  they  associate." 

The  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  engages  in  foreign 

^F.  J.  Weber,  Detroit:  "The  Growth  of  the  Brotherhood,"  "St. 
Andrew's  Cross,"  November,  1902. 

244 


ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 

work.  In  1893  the  Bishop  of  Tokyo  desired  a  brother- 
hood representative  to  work  in  Japan,  addressing  the 
young  men  of  that  country,  and  organizing  native  chap- 
ters. Twenty  men  volunteered  to  go,  and  Charles  H. 
Evans,  of  St.  Mary's  Chapter,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  was 
sent,  and  was  followed  by  Prof.  Frank  E.  Wood,  of 
Trinity  Chapter,  Bay  City,  Mich.  In  1895,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Bishop  of  Shanghai,  Dr.  William  L.  Ludlow 
was  sent  to  China.  These  men  were  not  sent  as  mission- 
aries, but  as  brotherhood  representatives  and  organizers. 
Several  chapters  were  organized  in  Japan,  and  the  so- 
ciety has  extended  to  all  lands  where  Anglican  Churches 
are  found. 

In  1892  a  Junior  Department  for  the  Brotherhood 
of  St.  Andrew  began  its  work.  Its  twofold  object  is 
(1)  that  boys  may  work  for  the  spread  of  Christ's  King- 
dom among  boys;  (2)  that  a  supply  of  trained  workers 
may  be  gradually  developed  for  the  spread  of  Christ's 
Kingdom  among  men.  The  Knights  of  St.  Paul,  an- 
other society  of  boys  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  does  simi- 
lar work,  but  is  secret. 

Since  its  beginning  between  two  and  three  thousand 
St.  Andrew  Chapters  have  been  recognized,  but  many 
have  fallen  by  the  way.^*  These  are  sought  after  and 
restored  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  under  the  care  of 
excellent  general  officers,  and  skillfully  promoted  by  a 
force  of  field  secretaries  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, the  brotherhood  is  steadily  growing.  Its  conven- 
tions are  not  only  large  but  representative,  and  some 
indication  of  the  intensive  strength  of  the  organization 
may  be  gathered  from  the  following  table  published  a 
few  years  since  i^'^ 

"  The  plan  of  receiving  Probationary  Chapters  will  doubtless  do  some- 
thing to  remedy  this  general  evil  of  Brotherhood  work. 

W'St.  Andrew's  Cross,"  December,  1909. 

245 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

WORK  OF  ST.  Andrew's  brotherhood  chapters 

93  per  cent  regularly  invite  to  Church  and  Sunday  School. 

86  per  cent  regularly  try  to  bring  to  the  Sacraments. 

81  per  cent  have  St.  Andrew's  Cross  subscribers. 

80  per  cent  have  members  engaged  in  Sunday  School  work. 

77  per  cent  visit  men  in  their  homes. 

75  per  cent  observe  the  Week  of  Prayer. 

70  per  cent  maintain  Men's  Parish  Communion  Services. 

59  per  cent  have  members  who  are  lay  readers. 

56  per  cent  regularly  report  to  Follow-Up  Department. 

48  per  cent  have  Bible  classes. 

48  per  cent  have  members  who  give  to  Forward  Movement  Fund. 

43  per  cent  visit  hospitals,  prisons,  etc. 

43  per  cent  leave  invitations  in  hotels  and  boarding  houses. 

32  per  cent  maintain  Mission  services. 

23  per  cent  have  members  who  intend  to  take  Holy  Orders. 

A  similar  statistical  exhibit  has  been  made  for  the 
Junior  Department.  Lenten  services  held  by  the 
brotherhood  have  proved  very  popular  in  not  a  few 
places,  and  in  outlying  districts  cottage  meetings  have 
been  well  received,  and  they  have  resulted  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  missions  and  new  Churches.  Men's  com- 
munions have  been  conducted  widely.  The  Brotherhood 
of  St.  Andrew  receives  the  full  endorsement  of  the 
Church  which  it  represents,  many  an  expression  of  faith 
in  its  providential  origin  and  character  and  of  approval 
of  its  achievements  having  come  from  the  highest 
churchmen,  to  many  of  whom  **the  brotherhood  seems 
to  be  an  answer  to  the  prayer  inserted  in  the  American 
Litany,  *that  it  may  please  Thee  to  send  forth  laborers 
into  Thy  harvest.'  These  words  were  inserted  at  a  time 
when  there  was  great  need  of  workers  in  the  American 
Church,  and  the  advent  of  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  An- 
drew revealed  the  existence  of  more  latent  energy  than 
people  ever  dreamed  of,  which  was  simply  pleading  for 
organization. 

**  Perhaps  the  greatest  thing  the  brotherhood  gave 
246 


ANGLICAN  BROTHERHOODS 

to  the  Church  was  definiteness.  A  member  must  b^ 
definite  and  systematic  in  his  Church  life.  In  nature 
the  fields  become  green,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  follow 
their  appointed  rule.  It  is  the  same  that  makes  kings 
of  the  business  world  rise,  for  'Greatness  is  the  child 
of  method.'  Shall  we  then  leave  the  most  important 
things  of  life  and  eternity  to  mere  chance?  If  Jesus 
Christ  and  His  Church  are  worth  anything,  let  them 
take  their  rightful  place  and  be  the  first  in  our  minds. 
The  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  in  principle  is  a  system 
of  order,  habit,  and  rule,  and  that  is  why  it  has  come 
to  the  front.  Its  mission  is  to  make  the  work  of  church- 
men definite  and  systematic.  *' ^^ 

^  Very  Rev.  Frank  DuMoulin,  LL.  D.,  address  at  the  Western  Ontario 
Conferenoe,  Guelph,  May,  1911. 


247 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

SOCIETIES  OF  MEN  RELATED  TO  THE  PROTESTANT 
CHURCH 

Most  widely  extended  of  all  societies  of  men  represent- 
ing various  Protestant  communions,  but  not  confined  to 
local  Church  organizations,  is  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association.  That  this  society^  was  not  without 
precursors  in  London  and  elsewhere  in  England  has 
already  been  seen  in  the  account  of  Post-Reformation 
Brotherhoods,  the  Horneck  religious  associations,  the 
societies  for  reformation  of  manners,  the  London  and 
Metropolitan  Young  Men's  Societies,  and  the  Church 
of  England  Young  Men's  Society  for  aiding  missions 
at  home  and  abroad  being  among  the  number;  but  as 
these  societies  were  relatively  few  and  obscure,  and  since 
social  conditions  were  such  as  to  indicate  dire  need  of 
giving  more  definite  and  systematic  consideration  to 
the  lives  of  men,  a  great  and  open  field  awaited  the 
foundation  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 
If  one  were  to  search  for  illustrations  of  the  saying, 
'* Institutions  are  the  lengthened  shadow  of  one  man," 
he  could  hardly  find  a  better  instance  than  the  one  pre- 
sented by  this  society.  A  world-wide  and  effective  Chris- 
tian agency  was  all  unconsciously  to  him  wrapped  up  in 
the  career  of  a  boy  who  in  1841  went  up  to  London 
from  Bridgewater,  England,  to  take  a  position  as  clerk 
in  a  large  dry-goods  house.  The  employees  of  modern 
department  stores,  while  sometimes  no  doubt  unfairly 
treated,  would  hardly  wish  to  go  back  to  the  conditions 

248 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

"which  George  "Williams  eneountered  in  his  new  environ- 
ment. From  eight  in  the  morning  until  nine  or  ten  at 
night  the  clerks  were  kept  constantly  busy,  with  hardly 
an  hour,  all  told,  for  the  meals  of  the  day.^  They  were 
expected  to  occupy  lodgings  under  the  roof  of  the  em- 
ployer, and  their  sleeping  apartments  were  small,  poorly 
ventilated,  and  overcrowded.  Moreover,  their  social 
and  moral  condition  seemed  to  be  a  matter  of  little  or 
no  concern  to  any  one. 

A  fact  too  often  forgotten  by  social  reformers  is  that 
men  need  not  only  places  to  eat,  sleep,  and  work,  but 
a  common  meeting  place  for  amusement,  and  for  the 
refreshing  influence  of  music  and  of  conversation.  The 
London  clerks  of  '41,  having  no  common  sitting-room 
or  club,  could  not  content  themselves  in  their  mean  and 
unattractive  quarters,  and  naturally  the  majority  could 
be  found  after  work-hours  in  the  midst  of  the  intem- 
perance and  brawling  of  nearby  *' publics."  Into  a 
maelstrom  of  temptation  and  vice  were  thus  drawn  hun- 
dreds of  boys  from  the  purest  of  country  homes.  Among 
them  was  one  George  Williams,  born  at  Ashway  Farm- 
house, near  Dulverton,  Southern  England,  in  1821. 
This  lad  was  early  destined  by  his  parents  to  a  business 
career,  and  after  a  brief  education  at  *'Glyn's  School," 
in  his  fifteenth  year  he  was  apprenticed  to  the  Holmes 
Drapery  Establishment  at  Bridgewater.  Williams  had 
as  yet  received  no  very  strong  religious  impressions,  but 
among  the  employees  with  whom  he  became  associated 
were  several  members  of  the  Independent  Church  who 
exercised  a  strong  influence  upon  him,  and  he  was  per- 
suaded to  surrender  himself  to  Christian  faith  and  life. 
In  the  building  where  he  worked  was  a  little  dark  room 

iShipton,  Exeter  Hall  Lectmres,  1845-46,  in  his  account  of  the 
London  Association,  says  of  the  clerks  of  that  day,  "They  commenced 
their  labor  from  seven  to  nine  in  the  morning  and  closed  it  from  nine 
to  eleven  in  the  evening  in  the  more  favorable  seasons,  while  in  some 
fhe  toil  of  the  day  did  not  end  till  long  after  midnight,  and  the  duties 
of  the  following  day  were  resumed  by  six  o'clock." 

249 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

where  wrapping-paper  was  kept,  and  to  this  place  the 
boy  often  slipped  off  to  pray  and  to  gain  strength  of 
soul.  Soon  he  was  teaching  in  Sunday  school,  and  with 
his  friends  was  holding  young  men's  prayer-meetings 
in  their  bedrooms,  to  which  other  comrades  were  in- 
vited. Before  long  twenty-seven  were  converted,  one  of 
the  proprietors  of  the  establishment  being  of  the  num- 
ber. Lay  activity  in  Christian  service  was  just  begin- 
ning in  England,  and  Mr.  Williams  is  quoted  as  saying 
of  the  above  work :  * '  There  was  a  freshness  about  it  that 
gave  zest  to  our  efforts.  "We  had  no  society  or  organi- 
zation. We  worked  because  we  felt  impelled  to  work.''^ 
In  1841,  the  Bridgewater  house  having  changed 
hands,  George  Williams  went  to  London  and  entered 
the  establishment  of  George  Hitchcock  &  Co.  as  a  junior 
assistant.  At  this  time  the  clerks  of  London  were  much 
neglected  and  often  became  dissipated  and  even  vicious. 
The  environment  was  far  from  good;  but,  however 
strong  the  current,  some  fish  are  not  content  to  go  down 
stream,  and  young  men  occasionally  appear  who  are 
superior  to  any  environment.  Like  one  of  old,  George 
Williams  **  purposed  in  his  heart  that  he  would  not 
defile  himself.''  Having  become  no  less  religious  than 
he  was  moral,  industrious,  and  determined  to  make  his 
way,  he  soon  suggested  to  one  in  whom  he  discovered 
kindred  aspirations  that  one  of  the  sleeping-rooms  be 
used  as  a  place  of  assembly  for  purposes  social  and 
religious.  The  plan  met  with  favor.  Others  of  the 
eighty  young  men  of  the  establishment  were  invited 
to  unite  in  the  undertaking,  and  soon  quite  a  company 
spent  occasional  evenings  together  in  prayer  or  study 
and  in  social  intercourse.  George  Williams  and  J. 
Christopher  Smith,  a  young  man  who  was  a  devoted 
Christian  and  Bible  student,  and  who  had  followed  his 

^  "A    History    of   the    Young   Men's    Christian    Association,"    It.   Ii. 
Boggett,  Ph.  D.,  Vol.  I,  p.   32. 

250 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

friend  into  the  house  by  a  month,  being  the  leading 
spirits.  It  will  give  some  idea  of  the  moral  earnestness 
as  well  as  the  type  of  mind  of  these  young  men  when  it 
is  noted  that  among  the  books  which  were  read  and  dis- 
cussed with  helpfulness  by  them  were  President  Fin- 
ney's ** Lectures  on  Revivals  of  Religion''  and  *' Lec- 
tures to  Professing  Christians."  For  simplicity,  ardor, 
and  fidelity  to  the  sublime  interests  of  the  soul  the  like 
of  these  books  can  not  be  found  in  more  modern  litera- 
ture. 

These  bedroom  meetings  and  the  perusal  of  such  lit- 
erature could  have  but  one  result:  the  quickening  of 
faith  and  the  conversion  of  men.  A  literary  society, 
a  Bible  class,  and  a  missionary  society  were  soon 
founded,  and,  best  of  all,  very  soon  several  young  men 
were  won  for  Christ,  and  Mr.  George  Hitchcock,  the 
head  of  the  house,  also  found  the  reality  of  the  new 
birth  through  the  same  instrumentality,  so  wonderfully 
does  the  divine  blessing  attend  sincere  faith  and  effort. 

Even  before  his  conversion,  however,  their  employer 
had  taken  an  interest  in  the  new  movement.  When  the 
first  little  room  became  too  straitened  for  the  meetings, 
and  a  committee  with  trepidation  asked  for  a  larger 
and  unoccupied  apartment,  to  their  surprise  the  request 
was  not  only  granted,  but  Mr.  Hitchcock,  approving  the 
character  and  business  faithfulness  of  these  young  men, 
gave  to  them  himself  as  well  as  the  room,  from  that  time 
exhibiting  a  father's  concern  for  the  whole  household 
of  his  employees,  and  later  becoming  a  princely  pro- 
moter of  gospel  enterprises.  Early  in  1844  Mr.  Hitch- 
cock described  to  Mr.  W.  D.  Owen  the  religious  work 
going  on  among  his  young  men,  and  the  latter,  through 
a  Mr.  James  Smith,  one  of  his  assistants,  inaugurated 
a  similar  work  in  his  business  house.^    Four  establish- 

»  *'The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  in  London,"  B.  W.  Ship- 
ton,  p.  33. 

251 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

ments  were  soon  holding  prayer-meetings  and  the 
Drapers'  Association  was  taking  measures  to  secure  the 
improvement  of  employed  men. 

Mr.  Edward  Beaumont,  one  of  the  early  Christian 
band  which  laid  the  foundations  of  this  work,  relates 
the  next  great  step  in  its  history.  He  says  that  on  a 
Sunday  evening  in  the  latter  end  of  May,  1844,  he  was 
walking  to  Surrey  Chapel  with  George  Williams,  when 
his  companion  said,  **  Teddy,  are  you  prepared  to  make 
a  sacrifice  for  Christ?''  The  reply  was,  **If  called 
upon  to  do  so,  I  hope  and  trust  I  can. ' '  His  companion 
then  told  him  that  he  had  become  deeply  impressed  with 
the  idea  of  introducing  the  new  but  already  successful 
plans  into  every  large  establishment  in  London,  and 
that  he  thought  that  if  a  few  earnest  self-denying  men 
could  be  found  to  unite  themselves  together  for  this 
purpose  God  would  smile  upon  the  effort  and  much  good 
would  be  done.  Finding  hearty  concurrence  in  the  mind 
of  his  friend,  Mr.  Williams  called  a  meeting  for  June  6, 
1844,  at  72  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  where  twelve  young 
men,  including  one  from  another  house  of  business,* 
decided  to  form  a  '*  Society  for  Improving  the  Condi- 
tion of  Young  Men  engaged  in  the  Drapery  and  other 
Trades,"  and  appointed  a  committee  of  management.** 
A  very  remarkable  circumstance  is  the  fact  that  these 
twelve  Christian  young  men  represented  in  equal  num- 
bers four  leading  denominations,  thus  stamping  catho- 
licity upon  the  society  at  its  very  outset.  The  founder, 
who  became  a  successful  merchant,  and  in  1894  was 
knighted  for  his  philanthropic  work,®  was  a  member  of 

*Mr.  James  Smith,  from  Owen's,  above  mentioned. 

5*'Fifty  Years'  Work  Among  Young  Men  in  All  Lands,"  Oh.  Fer- 
maud,  Ed.,  p.  160.  "Historical  Records  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,"  G.  J.  Stevenson,  p.  17. 

•'•Life  of  Sir  George  Williams,"  J.  E.  Hodder  Williams,  p.  273. 
*'The  modesty  and  the  religious  seriousness  of  this  good  man  in  the 
time  of  his  ripened  age  and  in  the  day  of  his  highest  earthly  recognition 
is  thus  portrayed:     Mr.  J.  H.  Putterill,  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  tho 

252 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

the  Church  of  England.  On  July  4th,  of  several  names 
suggested,  at  the  suggestion  of  Christopher  Smith,^  the 
organization  received  the  one  now  known  everywhere, 
*'The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association/'  The  con- 
stitution adopted  states  *'that  the  object  of  this  associ- 
ation shall  be  the  improvement  of  the  spiritual  condi- 
tion of  young  men  engaged  in  the  drapery  and  other 
trades  by  the  introduction  of  religious  services  among 
them,"  and  Article  8  says  **that  no  person  shall  be  con- 
sidered eligible  to  become  a  member  of  this  association 
unless  he  be  a  member  of  a  Christian  Church,  or  there 
be  sufficient  evidence  of  his  being  a  converted  charac- 
ter." In  all  that  was  done  no  attention  seems  to  have 
been  given  to  previous  efforts  put  forth  for  young  men. 
Action  was  influenced  principally  by  the  felt  needs  of 
these  founders  and  of  their  associates. 

It  has  already  appeared  from  this  account  that  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  is  a  Christian 
brotherhood  of  broad  but  earnest  spirit.  It  works 
among  men  of  all  religious  tenets,  and  for  the  Church 
universal;  its  active  membership,  as  will  be  seen,  being 
based  upon  evangelical  faith.  After  the  completion  of 
the  organization  the  first  endeavor  was  to  carry  out 
the  proposed  extension  of  the  movement  into  other  busi- 
ness houses.  A  coffee-room  in  Ludgate  Hill  was  rented 
for  meetings  at  half  a  crown  a  week,  and  a  circular  let- 
ter inviting  co-operation  in  the  work  of  the  new  society 
was  sent  to  all  young  men  engaged  in  the  drapery  and 

Association,  was  with  him  when  he  received  the  letter  from  the  Earl 
of  Rosebery  communicating  Her  Majesty's  pleasure.  After  reading  it,  his 
face  grew  pale;  his  voice  was  choked  with  feeling  as  he  spoke  of  its 
contents.  The  whole  thing  was  so  unexpected  by  this  humble  Christian 
worker.  Handing  the  l«tter  to  the  Secretary,  he  said,  'What  do  yon 
think  of  that?'  He  replied,  'Sir,  it  is  a  well  deserved  honor.'  _  'No,  no,' 
said  George  Williams,  'it  is  not  for  me,  it  is  for  the  Association.  It 
belongs  to  our  Master;  let  us  put  it  at  His  feet.'^  Then  they  knelt  in 
prayer,  and  in  humble  tones  he  gave  the  recognition  to  Him  to  whom 
he   felt   it  was  rightly  due." 

^Doggett,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  p.  40. 

253 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

allied  trades  whose  names  the  committee  could  secure. 
The  carefulness  with  which  the  beginnings  of  this  move- 
ment were  made  is  indicated  by  the  following  expres- 
sions from  the  report  of  the  first  five  months'  work: 
*' There  are  at  present  connected  with  the  association 
about  seventy  enrolled  members;  the  greatest  possible 
caution  has  been  exercised  in  their  selection.  "We  would 
rather  see  the  names  of  men  willing  to  be  *  instant  in 
season  and  out  of  season  in  the  work  of  the  Lord'  than 
behold  a  long  and  numerous  list  of  those  without  the 
power  of  godliness.  Religious  services  are  now  estab- 
lished in  fourteen  houses,  into  ten  of  which  they  were 
introduced  by  the  association.  There  are  also  two  dis- 
tricts in  which  young  men  from  different  houses  meet 
together  for  united  prayer."^  The  thought  can  hardly 
be  prevented  from  coming  to  mind,  "What  if  this  re- 
ligious carefulness  and  the  ideal  of  a  primarily  spiritual 
society  had  been  more  perfectly  preserved  in  the  modern 
organization  ? 

It  soon  became  necessary  'Ho  employ  a  missionary 
to  act  as  assistant  secretary"  and  to  make  himself  gen- 
erally useful  to  young  men  ''by  pointing  them  to  'the 
Lamb  of  God  which  taketh  away  the  sins  of  the  world.'  " 
By  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Hitchcock  funds  were  raised, 
and  Mr.  T.  H.  Tarlton,  a  layman,  was  secured  for  this 
work. 

In  1845  the  formation  of  mutual  improvement  so- 
cieties provided  a  means  of  engaging  the  attention  of 
unconverted  young  men  and  inaugurated  the  social 
service  of  the  organization,  and  in  the  same  year  the 
Exeter  Hall  Lecture  Course  was  established.  In  the 
first  four  years  of  this  course  thirty-six  thousand  pub- 
lished copies  of  the  lectures  were  sold,  which  fact,  as 
well  as  the  great  audiences  in  attendance,  witness  the 
success  of  the  plan.    Another  progressive  step  was  the 

*Doggett,  ut  supra,  pp.  41-43. 

254 


^.•.. 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

inauguration  in  1846  of  the  Young  Men's  Sunday  After- 
noon Bible  Class,  placing  upon  a  systematic  basis  the 
study  of  the  Word,  which  has  never  ceased  to  be  a 
powerful  factor  in  the  history  of  the  association.  By 
1854  seven  hundred  young  men  per  week  met  in  ten 
London  classes.  Long  before  this  time  the  circulation 
of  Christian  literature  in  the  form  of  tracts,  pamphlets, 
and  ''Papers  for  Young  Men"  had  been  begun,  thirty- 
nine  thousand  copies  of  the  latter  being  distributed  in 
the  year  1852.  The  next  development  was  still  more 
definitely  educational,  being  the  establishment  of  a 
library,  a  reading-room,  and  educational  classes,  this 
beginning  of  a  far-reaching  work  being  made  in  1849. 
At  about  the  same  period  also  began  that  foreign  march 
of  the  Young  Lien's  Christian  Association  which  has  en- 
compassed the  globe.  By  1855,  when  the  International 
Alliance  was  founded,  organizations  had  been  effected 
not  only  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  but  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  France,  Germany,  Holland,  Switzer- 
land, Belgium,  Italy,  and  in  sixteen  other  countries.  In 
some  of  these  countries,  notably  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land, the  association  simply  absorbed  the  earlier  local 
societies.  In  Germany  ten  or  more  associations  (Christ- 
licher  Jiinglingsverein)^  were  formed  before  1844. 

In  America  the  association  was  immediately  preceded 
by  several  organizations  already  mentioned,^^  the 
''Young  Men's  Society,"  inspired  by  Naismith  of  Glas- 
gow, and  a  ''Young  Men's  Society  of  Enquiry,"  or- 
ganized in  Cincinnati  in  1848,  and  in  1853  called  the 
"Young  Men's  Christian  Union,"  being  those  best 
known.^^  The  direct  inspiration  to  which  the  American 
association  is  to  be  attributed  came,  however,  from  Lon- 
don, the  first  organizations  so  effected  being  formed  at 


9  Supra,  p.  221. 
1"  Supra,  pp.  222,  223. 
"  "Fifty  Years'  Work  Among  Young  Men,"  op.  cit.,  p.  116. 

255 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Montreal  and  at  Boston  on  the  9th  and  29th  of  Decem- 
ber, respectively,  in  the  year  1851.  In  Montreal  tract 
distribution,  begun  by  the  Naismith  society,  had  been 
continued  by  some  older  men  who  enlisted  youthful 
helpers.  As  one  of  these  youths  called  for  his  com- 
panion on  a  day  in  September,  1851,  he  was  handed  a 
copy  of  the  Exeter  Hall  Lectures  with  the  remark, 
'^Why  can  not  we  have  a  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation in  Montreal?'*  This  word  led  to  further  con- 
versations. A  former  member  of  the  London  society  was 
found,  and  as  he  had  in  possession  a  copy  of  the  con- 
stitution of  that  society,  he  aided  the  organization 
formed  in  St.  Helen  Street  Church,  the  same  place  in 
which  twenty  years  earlier  the  Naismith  Society  was 
bom.  An  article  by  an  American  student,  and  pub- 
lished in  a  Boston  paper  in  June,  1850,  was  the  source 
of  the  work  begun  in  that  city  the  next  year,  and  the 
Montreal  and  Boston  associations  were  unrelated,  if  not 
ignorant  of  each  other's  existence,  for  some  two  years. 
Similar  societies  soon  arose  in  Buffalo,  Washington, 
New  York,  and  Baltimore,  and  the  first  effort  at  affili- 
ation came  from  Washington,  resulting  in  a  delegated 
gathering  two  years  later  in  Buffalo.  At  this  meeting, 
June  7,  1854,  nineteen  associations  of  the  thirty-two 
which  were  invited,  and  including  a  Canadian  repre- 
sentative, took  steps  announced  in  February,  1855,  as 
having  been  ratified  by  two-thirds  of  the  existing  bodies, 
and  which  formally  brought  into  being  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Confederation  of  the  United  States  and  Brit- 
ish Provinces. 

The  first  World's  Conference  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  took  place  in  Paris,  August  20, 
1855,  under  the  title  Conference  Universelle  des  Unions 
Chretiennes  de  Jeunes  Gens,  and  it  was  at  this  conven- 
tion that  by  resolution  of  an  American  delegate  the  his- 

256 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

toric  Paris  '* basis"  was  adopted.^^  visits  to  other  coun- 
tries from  representatives  of  the  association  added  to 
the  effectiveness  of  the  sentiment  produced  by  this  con- 
ference. In  1881-2  a  German-speaking  secretary  of  the 
American  committee  went  to  his  native  country,  and 
the  result  of  his  presence  and  work  in  Berlin  and  else- 
where in  the  empire  is  the  Christlicher  Verein  Junger 
Manner,  one  of  the  most  valuable  branches  of  the  asso- 
ciation.   A  very  similar  incident  occurred  at  Paris. 

In  tracing  the  later  development  of  the  association 
it  is  of  interest  to  note  among  other  facts  that  it  was 
at  a  convention  of  the  Northern  association  in  New  York 
City,  November  14,  1861,  the  United  States  Christian 
Commissions^  was  formed,  an  organization  whose  work 
was  epochal  in  the  history  of  warfare,  and  whose  achieve- 
ments in  ministering  to  the  material  and  spiritual  needs 
of  the  soldiers  engaged  in  the  greatest  of  civil  conflicts, 
furnish  some  of  the  brightest  pages  of  Christian  history 
and  inaugurated  the  various  forms  of  work  for  special 
classes  of  men  which  are  now  so  well  known. 

The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  has  always 

12  "Fifty  Years'  Work,"   op.  cit.,  p.  119. 

^  "The  History  of  the  Great  Republic,"  Jesse  T.  Peck,  pp.  668-670, 
has  an  interesting  account  of  the  Christian  Commission.  Among  other 
things,  he  says,  "It  was  organized  in  Philadelphia  on  the  16th  of 
November,  1861,  in  response  to  a  call  from  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association."  "In  both  means  and  men  there  was  no  lack,  but  a  steady 
and  rapid  growth,  of  abundance,  without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of 
Christian  charities."  "For  the  whole  period  of  its  service,  from  the 
16th  of  November,  1861,  to  May,  1866,  in  cash,  services,  provisions, 
clothing,  etc.,  its  Christian  charities  and  labor  for  the  relief  of  our 
soldiers  were  estimated  at  $6,291,107.68.  Delegates  commissioned,  4,859 
— working  in  the  aggregate,  without  compensation,  185,562  days;  boxes 
of  stores  and  publications,  95,066;  Bibles,  Testaments,  and  other  por- 
tions of  Scripture,  1,466,748;  hymn  and  psalm  booksv  1,370,953;  knap- 
sacks, books  in  paper  and  flexible  covers,  8,308,052;  bound  library  books, 
296,816;  magazines  and  pamphlets,  767,861;  religious  weekly  and  monthly 
periodicals;  18,126,002;  pages  of  tracts,  39,104,246;  'Silent  Comforter,' 
etc.,  8,572;  sermons  preached  by  delegates,  58,308;  prayer-meetings  held 
by  delegates,  77,744;  letters  written  by  delegates  for  soldiers,  92,321," 
Ibid,  p.  669.  The  value  of  this  vast  work,  done  among  men  exposed  to 
the  perils  of  camp  and  field,  may  be  more  fully  imagined  than  realized. 

17  257 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

been  considered  as  a  body  of  men  auxiliary  to  and  a 
part  of  the  evangelical  Churches.  The  Paris  ** basis'' 
was  adopted  in  1856  by  the  Montreal  convention,  and 
at  Portland  in  1867  the  evangelical  test  was  maintained, 
and  it  was  provided  that  associations  organized  after 
that  date  must,  in  order  to  representation  in  the  con- 
vention, embody  in  their  constitutions  a  clause  restrict- 
ing active  membership  with  the  right  to  vote  and  hold 
office  to  young  men  in  communion  with  an  evangelical 
Church.  This  is  known  as  the  *' Portland  test.''  It  can 
not  be  doubted  that  the  establishment  of  this  criterion 
of  membership  gave  the  association  the  instant  con- 
fidence and  strong  support  of  the  Church,  and  its  ob- 
literation will  undoubtedly  weaken  the  influence  of  the 
organization. 

The  first  association  building  was  erected  in  Chi- 
cago in  1867,  since  which  time  many  splendid  and  costly 
structures  have  been  built  in  all  parts  of  the  world  to 
house  young  men  and  to  act  as  centers  of  Christian  in- 
terest. The  splendor  of  some  of  these  structures  has 
caused  criticism,  but  no  doubt  can  reasonably  exist  that 
youths  away  from  home  have  found  in  them  advantages 
which  otherwise  would  have  been  almost  impossible  of 
attainment.  The  college,  railroad,  and  industrial  work 
of  the  Association  have  now  for  some  decades  grown  to 
proportions  and  power  which  command  respect.  In 
1901  the  American  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations, 
having  completed  a  half  century  of  work,  followed  the 
example  set  by  the  British  associations  in  1894  and  held 
a  jubilee  in  the  city  of  Boston,  at  which  time  among  the 
many  telegrams  and  messages  of  congratulation  received 
were  those  of  President  "William  McKinley,  King  Ed- 
ward VII,  Emperor  William  of  Germany,  King  Eman- 
uel of  Italy,  and  Prince  Hilkoff  of  Russia.^*  A  Jubilee 
Exhibit  was  made  at  this  time  showing  the  work  of  the 

""Life   of  Sir  George  Williams,"   op.   cit.,  p.  301. 

258 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

religious,  educational,  athletic,  and  other  departments. 
Of  the  educational  exhibit,  representing  what  was  at 
that  time  a  comparatively  new  undertaking,  the  judgea 
said  in  their  report,  ''For  the  extent,  variety,  and  ex- 
cellence of  the  work  done  we  desire  to  compliment  the 
committee  and  the  various  associations.'*^'* 

During  the  progress  of  the  second  half  century 
of  the  work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associatiijn 
great  advances  have  been  made,  especially  on  the  ma- 
terial side  of  the  movement.  The  most  important  item 
in  religious  development  has  been  the  employment  of 
special  secretaries  to  give  attention  to  the  spiritual  con- 
dition and  needs  of  young  men,  and  to  plan  undertak- 
ings for  their  welfare. 

The  whole  movement  for  ''work  by  men  and  for 
men''  conducted  by  this  organization  is  so  well  under- 
stood that  its  account  may  only  be  made  a  little  more 
striking  by  the  addition  of  a  statement  printed  some 
time  since  by  Mr.  C.  K.  Ober  as  part  of  an  article  with 
the  caption, ' '  Manhood  Engineering. ' '  This  writer  said : 
*'It  is  less  than  sixty  years  since  the  seed-thought  of 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  was  planted  in 
North  American  soil,  in  the  cities  of  Boston  and  Mon- 
treal. It  has  since  spread  to  six  hundred  of  the  twelve 
hundred  cities  of  North  America.  It  has  adapted  and 
entrenched  itself  at  two  hundred  and  fifty  division  and 
terminal  points  of  our  great  railway  systems,  in  fifty 
industrial  centers,  at  the  naval  stations  and  army  posts 
on  our  mainland,  and  in  our  insular  possessions,  and 
on  the  Panama  Canal.  It  is  also  at  work  on  our  battle- 
ships and  in  our  railroad  construction  camps,  and 
(adapting  itself  to  country  conditions)  in  nearly  fifty 
counties.  It  has  specialized  and  evolved  great  depart- 
ments, and  found  and  trained  specialists  in  physical 
work,  in  educational  work,  in  religious  work.     It  has 

"••Report  of  the  Jubilee  Exhibit,"  p.  19. 

259 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

grown  into  great  State,  provincial  and  international 
organizations,  covering  the  continent  of  North  Amer- 
ica with  a  network  of  helpful  supervision,  and  push- 
ing, with  intelligence  and  efficiency,  its  manysided 
campaigns  of  development  and  extension.  It  has  also 
projected  itself  in  a  great  missionary  or  foreign  de- 
partment, sending  out  and  supporting,  by  the  volun- 
tary offerings  of  its  members,  more  than  one  hundred 
secretaries  (all  university  graduates),  and  in  ninety 
days,  beginning  in  October,  1910,  raised  a  fund  of 
$2,000,000  to  erect,  or  enlarge,  fifty-five  association 
buildings  throughout  Latin  America  and  all  parts  of  the 
non-Christian  world.  It  has  secured  $70,000,000  worth 
of  property  (chiefly  in  buildings  for  its  city  work)  in 
North  America,  and  employs  a  force  of  over  three  thou- 
sand secretaries.  *But  this  is  history,'  some  one  may. 
say.    Yes,  but  it  is  modern  history. ''^^ 

An  organization  which  for  a  time  seemed  destined  to 
do  a  wide  work  on  the  non-denominational  basis  was  the 
Christian  Industrial  League.  This  society  had  an  ad- 
junct Christian  Industrial  Benefit  Association,  and  it 
was  adapted  to  appeal  to  the  working  classes.  Its  prin- 
cipal activity  was  in  New  England  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  The  cause  of  its  failure  to  take 
a  larger  place  in  the  history  of  brotherhood  work  may 
have  been  the  difficulty  of  instituting  benefit  work  with- 
out a  force  of  paid  agents.  Or  perhaps  the  fault  was 
in  not  keeping  the  spiritual  purpose  in  the  foreground. 
During  the  time  of  its  popularity  the  league  was 
strongly  endorsed  as  constituting  a  valuable  agency  for 
**  developing  a  spirit  of  Christian  service  and  winning 
men  to  Jesus  Christ.*' ^^ 

It  would  be  unfortunate  to  pass  unmentioned  a  large 

w  "Association  Men,"  Magazine  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation, 1911. 

w  Mead,  ''Modern  Methods  in  Church  Work,"  pp.  160,  161.  Head- 
quaxters  were  at  Springfield,  Massachusetts. 

260 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

class  of  societies  which  Christian  men  in  union  created 
and  which  they  have  nourished  to  promote  the  work  of 
reformation  and  purity.  The  National  Divorce  Asso- 
ciation was  organized  in  1881  as  the  New  England  Di- 
vorce Reform  Association.  Various  gentlemen,  both 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics,  with  Dr.  Theodore  D. 
Woolsey  as  president,  combined  to  establish  this  society, 
which  became  National  in  1885,  taking  for  its  purpose 
*'to  promote  an  improvement  in  public  sentiment  and 
legislation  in  the  institution  of  the  family,  especially  as 
affected  by  existing  evils  relating  to  marriage  and  di- 
vorce." Not  a  little  excellent  service  was  rendered  in 
the  way  of  investigation  of  conditions,  publicity,  and 
improved  legislation;  but  the  present  state  of  the  coun- 
try on  this  matter  is  none  too  encouraging  to  friends  of 
righteousness  and  of  the  home.  Law  and  Order  Leagues 
began  work  with  the  Massachusetts  society  in  1882,  and 
in  various  cities  and  States  they  accomplished  excellent 
results  in  behalf  of  purity  and  of  the  regulation  of  the 
liquor  traffic.  ^A  Lord's  Day  Alliance  was  established 
in  Washington,  in  1888,  having  for  its  object  the  protec- 
tion of  the  American  Sabbath.  Several  National  Re- 
form Associations  have  headquarters  at  Washington, 
Philadelphia,  and  other  places,  and  various  States  and 
cities  have  similar  institutions.  The  International  Re- 
form Bureau,  Washington,  in  1911  claimed  a  record  of 
thirteen  laws  which  at  its  instigation  and  by  its  assist- 
ance had  been  introduced  into  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  and  had  become  statutes.^^  The  Ameri- 
can Protective  Association  was  formed  at  Clinton,  Iowa, 
in  1887,  not  as  a  political  party,  but  as  a  body  of  citi- 
zens determined  to  defend  the  sovereignty  of  the  United 
States  against  *'any  ecclesiastical  power  not  created  and 
controlled  by  American  citizens,  and  which  claims  equal, 
if  not  greater,  sovereignty  than  the  Government  of  the 

"Q.  V.   "World  Almanac." 

261 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

United  States  of  America."  In  1900  this  organization 
claimed  two  millions  of  members  and  had  spread  to 
Canada,  England,  and  Australia,  but  leading  Protes- 
tants, notably  Dr.  H.  K.  Carroll  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  opposed  the  extreme  views  of  this  order, 
and  it  has  been  less  prominent  than  formerly.^®  The 
American  Minute  Men  are  not  proscriptive  or  radical. 
The  principles  of  this  new  society  are,  **  Public  money 
shall  not  be  appropriated  for  sectarian  schools,"  and 
**  Public  money  shall  not  be  appropriated  for  any  in- 
stitution wholly  or  in  part  under  sectarian  control." 

Of  an  interesting  nature  was  the  establishment  of 
the  interdenominational  American  Institute  of  Social 
Service,  organized  in  1898  to  replace  the  League  for 
Social  Service,  and  whose  early  leader  was  Dr.  Josiah 
Strong,  author  of  many  popular  books  on  social  topics.^^ 
This  institute  determined  to  be  a  clearing-house  for  so- 
cial information.  It  took  for  its  functions :  1.  To  gather 
from  all  sources  facts  bearing  on  the  solution  of  social 
problems.  2.  To  interpret  these  by  ascertaining  causes 
and  effects.  3.  To  disseminate  the  resulting  knowledge 
to  practical  workers  and  for  the  education  of  public 
opinion.  By  the  time  the  organization  had  operated  for 
a  dozen  years  it  reported  the  formation  of  five  hundred 
classes  for  the  study  of  social  problems,  with  more  than 
six  thousand  students.  The  Gospel  of  the  Kingdom  was 
founded  as  the  monthly  jcifernal  of  the  society,  which 
at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1907,  as  well  as  previously 
in  the  French  capital  and  elsewhere,  received  the  highest 
award  in  social  economy.^^ 

The  undenominational  omni-partisan  organization 
known  as  the  Anti-Saloon  League  of  America  deserves 

""Encyclopedia  of   Social  Reform,"   Bliss,   in  loco. 

20  "The   New   Era,"    "Social    Progress,"    "Challenge    of   the   City," 
and  other  works,  Josiah  Strong,  D.  D. 

21  "World   Almanac."      Headquarters,    Bible   House,   New   York   City. 

262 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

a  place  of  prominence  in  the  list  of  Christian  Brother- 
hoods auxiliary  to  the  Churches  of  the  United  States. 
This  society  sought,  it  is  true,  to  federate  all  religious 
and  social  organizations  for  the  suppression  of  the  liquor 
traffic;  but  as  its  work  was  largely  political,  it  was 
from  the  first  a  body  of  men,  clergymen  and  laymen  of 
the  various  States  of  the  Union,  united  in  the  effort  to 
control,  to  cripple,  and  ultimately  to  destroy  the  saloon 
and  its  attendant  institutions. 

All  students  of  reform  movements  are  aware  that 
not  only  local  but  State  temperance  societies  and  move- 
ments existed  long  before  the  time  of  the  virile  Anti- 
Saloon  League.  The  oldest  of  the  State  organizations, 
now  merged  into  or  co-operating  with  the  league,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  Connecticut  Temperance  Union. 
Other  institutions  of  the  kind  had  various  names,  and 
the  Anti-Saloon  League  of  the  District  of  Columbia  was 
established  June  23,  1893,  with  Samuel  H.  Walker,  a 
Methodist  Episcopal  layman  of  the  city  of  Washington, 
as  president.  This  was  the  pioneer  society  of  a  National 
movement  which  was  inaugurated  December  18,  1895, 
at  the  capital  by  a  delegated  convention  called  by  the 
officers  of  the  League  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 
Bishop  Luther  B.  Wilson,  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  was  a  leading  spirit  and  officer  both  of  the 
earlier  society  and  of  its  successor. 

In  Ohio,  during  the  month  of  September,  1893,  Dr. 
Howard  I.  Russell,  a  Congregational  minister,  founded 
the  State  organization,  which  soon  came  to  be  the  most 
effective  of  the  branches  of  the  Anti-Saloon  League,  and 
whose  work  set  the  example,  both  in  methods  and  in 
generous  expenditure,  for  the  formation  and  conduct 
of  other  State  leagues.  A  demonstration  on  a  large 
scale  of  what  could  be  accomplished  by  an  interpartisan 
society  was  greatly  needed,  and  this  demonstration  the 
Ohio  State  Anti-Saloon  League  was  able  to  make.    The 

263 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

older  temperance  organizations  to  which  reference  has 
been  made  changed  their  names,  or  methods,  to  con- 
form with  those  of  the  new  and  aggressive  society,  and 
soon  the  country  was  largely  covered  by  a  closely-knit 
and  determined  fraternity  of  saloon  opponents.  At  the 
end  of  the  first  decade  of  the  work  of  the  Anti-Saloon 
League,  in  1905,  including  all  affiliated  bodies,  thirty- 
seven  State  leagues  were  reported,  and  the  annual  re- 
sources of  the  organization  had  risen  to  the  sum  of 
$330,479.  Twenty-seven  State  publications,  issued  by 
the  league,  had  a  combined  circulation  of  over  two 
hundred  thousand  copies,  and  over  fifty  million  book 
pages  of  literature  had  been  distributed  during  the 
tenth  year  of  the  society's  history.  After  that  date  the 
growth  of  the  league  was  naturally  restricted  territo- 
rially, but  its  development  within  the  lines  of  its  or- 
ganization and  in  the  field  of  definite  anti-saloon  en- 
deavor was  remarkable. 

The  Anti-Saloon  League  naturally  made  numerous 
enemies,  but  a  study  of  their  character  and  deeds  re- 
flects far  more  credit  than  discredit  upon  the  organi- 
zation, which  continued  on  its  way  despite  their  hostile 
attitude  and  their  accusations  of  dishonesty.  It  is  true 
that  in  its  earlier  days  the  league  was  not  always  for- 
tunate in  its  officers,  and  a  number  of  men  whose  pre- 
vious reputation  had  been  excellent,  when  subjected  to 
the  temptation  of  large  offers  from  the  liquor  element 
and  from  their  friends  yielded  to  these  allurements  and 
fell  from  their  allegiance.  Better  men  replaced  these 
traitors  to  the  cause,  and  the  league  moved  on.  By  the 
year  1910  the  organization  had  come  to  possess  over 
one  hundred  and  thirty  offices,  it  employed  in  its  propa- 
ganda six  hundred  persons,  and  during  that  year  it  dis- 
tributed more  than  two  million  pages  of  anti-saloon  lit- 
erature.^2 

^  See  "World  Almanac  and  Encyclopedia."    Also  "Anti-Saloon  League 
Year -Book."  OfiJ. 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

"While  the  Anti-Saloon  League  of  America  formed 
an  independent  organization,  it  grew  out  of  the  life  of 
the  Church,  and  it  became  from  the  first  a  Church  so- 
ciety, laboring  for  the  interests  of  Christianity  by  seek- 
ing the  suppression  of  the  foes  of  religion  and  of  virtue. 
In  its  first  decade,  by  campaigns  of  education,  law  enact- 
ment, and  law  enforcement  the  league  succeeded  in  clos- 
ing saloons  whose  total  frontage  would  extend  for  many 
miles.  The  movement  had  its  ebb-and-flow  experiences, 
but  in  the  second  decade  of  its  history,  under  the  active 
superintendence  of  Dr.  P.  A.  Baker,  it  produced  re- 
sults even  more  powerful.  If  this  league  had  accom- 
plished nothing  more,  if  its  actual  records  of  towns  and 
counties  cleared  of  the  sale  of  intoxicants  or  tightened 
up  in  compulsory  obedience  to  liquor  laws  had  not  been 
written,  at  least  it  would  have  been  valuable  as  showing 
the  advantages  of  the  co-operation  of  Church  people 
on  a  non-sectarian  and  unpartisan  basis  in  their  strife 
for  righteousness.  As  a  teacher  of  method  in  promot- 
ing reform  the  Anti-Saloon  League  became  and  re- 
mained a  highly-valued  institution. 

The  Christian  traveling  men  of  America,  realizing 
the  mingled  temptations  and  opportunities  to  do  good 
presented  to  commercial  travelers,  July  1,  1899,  organ- 
ized themselves  into  a  society  known  as  the  Gideons.^' 

Every  one  whose  memory  goes  back  to  the  days  of 
the  ** drummers''  of  a  generation  ago  will  remember 
what  a  happy-go-lucky  and  often  dissipated  class  com- 
prised their  greater  number.  Always  moving,  free  from 
home  restrictions,  and  without  the  elevating  influence 
of  family  and  of  local  Church,  subjected  to  the  demand 
for  worldly  good  fellowship,  and  expected  to  treat  their 
prospective  customers  to  liquors  and  entertainments  of 
a  varied  sort,  it  is  small  wonder  that  these  men  yielded 


«  "The  Church  and  Young  Men,"  F,  G.  Cressey,  Ph.D.,  pp.  128  131, 
Bevell,   1903.     Perhaps  the  earliest  book  account. 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

to  pressure  and  fell  into  habits  which  earned  for  the 
profession  an  unsavory  reputation.  Always,  of  course, 
men  were  to  be  found  whose  well-fixed  principles  and 
rugged  integrity  were  invincible,  but  the  young  and  the 
easily-led  were  carried  away  from  virtue,  sobriety,  and 
salvation. 

A  better  day  has  dawned  for  American  traveling- 
men.  Business  conditions  and  business  men  have  done 
much  to  bring  this  about,  and  they  have  been  aided 
by  the  law  of  competition  and  of  the  **  survival  of  the 
fittest."  The  Church  and  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  have  aided  the  good  resolutions  of  the  meny 
and  they  have  also  encouraged  them  by  a  greater 
iwarmth  and  friendliness.  Christianity  has  done  won- 
ders for  the  "Knights  of  the  Grip,"  and  especially  since 
many  of  them  organized  themselves  into  a  Gideon's 
Band  of  Christian  brothers. 

The  fact  that  one  night  two  previously  unacquainted 
traveling  salesmen  who  were  seeking  hotel  accommoda- 
tions at  Boscobel,  Wis.,  were  compelled  to  occupy  the 
Bame  room  was  the  Providential  circumstance  which  oc- 
casioned the  organization  of  ** Gideons.''  The  two  men 
who  were  thus  unexpectedly  thrown  into  each  other's 
association  were  John  H.  Nicholson  of  Janesville,  Wis., 
and  S.  E.  Hill  of  Beloit.  When  retiring  time  came,  Mr. 
Nicholson  took  out  his  Bible  for  evening  worship,  say- 
ing that  it  was  his  custom  to  read  from  God's  Word 
and  to  pray  before  he  retired.  Mr.  Hill,  who  likewise 
was  a  Christian  man,  suggested  that  his  companion  read 
aloud,  which  was  done.  Then,  after  prayer,  a  conversa- 
tion began  with  reference  to  the  Christian  life  and  ex- 
perience and  which  was  thought  by  both  of  its  partici- 
pants to  be  very  profitable. 

A  few  weeks  later  Mr.  Hill  and  Mr.  Nicholson  met 
again,  under  circumstances  which  seemed  to  them  in- 
dicative of  divine  arrangement.     Their  minds  reverted 

266 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

to  their  former  meeting  and  conversation,  and  they  con- 
cluded that  some  kind  of  organization  ought  to  be 
formed  which  would  band  together  the  Christian  travel- 
ing-men of  all  classes  for  their  own  religious  strength 
and  for  the  purpose  of  exerting  such  influence  upon 
others  as  might  bring  Christ  into  their  lives. 

With  the  well-known  decisiveness  of  the  commercial 
man,  these  now  fast  friends  made  up  their  minds  that 
the  way  to  do  is  to  do,  and  so  they  called  a  meeting 
for  counsel  and  for  action.  Letters  were  sent  to  various 
men  of  their  acquaintance,  but  the  response  was  so 
meager  that  when  the  organization  was  launched,  July  1, 
1899,  at  Janesville,  "Wis.,  the  number  of  charter  mem- 
bers was  only  three,  Mr.  W.  J.  Knights  being  the  first 
outside  recruit.  However,  the  three  meant  business  and, 
being  also  encouraged  by  letters  received,  they  organized 
and  elected  each  other  to  the  necessary  offices.  As  they 
were  uncertain  as  to  what  name  ought  to  represent  the 
movement,  they  joined  in  prayer  about  the  matter,  and 
after  a  few  minutes'  waiting  Mr.  Knights  exclaimed, 
** Gideons,"  and  agreement  was  instant  and  hearty. 
Then  they  read  together  the  Scriptural  account  of  the 
ancient  leader  who  **was  willing  to  do  exactly  what 
God  wanted  him  to  do,  irrespective  of  his  own  judgment 
as  to  plans  or  results." 

From  that  time  the  three  founders  of  the  Gideons 
began  with  energy  to  address  others  whose  interests 
they  desired  to  obtain,  and  when  in  September  of  the 
same  year  at  Waukesha,  Wis.,  the  organization  was  com- 
pleted, the  numbers  had  decidedly  increased,  and  at 
the  present  time  the  badge  representing  Gideon's  pitcher 
and  torch^*  is  to  be  seen  in  most  of  the  hotels,  on  the 
trains  of  all  railway  systems,  and  in  all  important  re- 
ligious convocations.^^ 

^The  whole  idea  of  the  order  revolves  around  the  account  of  Gideon's 
successful  attack  upon  the  Midianites  asi  recounted  in  Judges,  chap.  vii. 

25  See  tract,  "Origin  of  the  Gideons,"  National  Headquarters,  22  W. 
Quincy  St.,   Chicago.  ofiT 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  formal  statement  of  purpose  made  by  the  iinited 
Christian  commercial  travelers  is  indicative  of  the  spirit 
and  activities  of  a  very  aggressive  membership.  **The 
object  of  the  Gideons  shall  be  to  recognize  the  Christian 
traveling  men  of  the  world  with  cordial  fellowship;  to 
encourage  each  other  in  the  Master's  work;  to  improve 
every  opportunity  for  the  betterment  of  the  lives  of  our 
fellow  travelers,  business  men,  and  others  with  whom 
we  may  come  in  contact;  scattering  seeds  all  along  the 
pathway  for  Christ."^® 

*'Any  man  whose  chief  occupation  is  traveling  for 
commercial  business,  who  believes  in  Jesus  Christ  as  the 
eternal  Son  of  God,  accepts  Him  as  his  personal  Savior 
and  endeavors  to  follow  Him  in  his  daily  life,  and  who 
has  belonged  for  three  months  or  longer  to  some  local 
Church  or  other  religious  body  that  makes  such  belief 
and  endeavor  a  condition  of  membership  may  become 
a  Gideon  by  complying  with  the  by-laws  governing  ap- 
plications. There  shall  also  be  two  other  classes  of 
members,  to  be  known  as  sustaining  members  and  as- 
sociate members,  as  provided  for  in  the  by-laws.  Gide- 
ons no  longer  working  as  commercial  travelers  majr  still 
be  considered  as  active  members. ''^^ 

In  the  working  out  of  Gideon  plans  it  was  soon  found 
to  be  wise  to  include  not  only  salesmen,  but  also  buyers, 
collectors,  auditors,  claim  agents,  freight  and  passenger 
agents,  insurance  agents,  and  adjusters  in  all  cases  in 
which  business  keeps  them  on  the  road. 

The  Gideon  organizations  are  known  as  camps.  A 
Jbcal  camp  is  made  up  of  members  whose  homes  are  in 
a  given  city  or  in  its  vicinity.  State  camps  comprise 
all  members  within  a  given  State.  Membership  is  con- 
tracted through  the  National  organization  only,  the  gen- 
eral officers  being  thus  brought  into  direct  contact  with 

2«  National  Constitution  of  the  Gideons. 
2»  Ibid. 

268 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

all  the  members,  either  in  person  or  by  correspondence. 
Any  acquaintance  with  these  men  impresses  two  facts: 
that  the  large  proportion  are  men  who  have  been  res- 
cued, not  usually  from  the  slums,  but  from  the  thrall- 
dom  of  vices  of  the  day,  and  that  the  members  as  a 
whole  are  devoted  to  the  person  of  Christ  and  to  His 
spiritual  service.  The  Church  which  these  men  attend 
is  apt  to  know  that  they  are  present,  and  the  prayer- 
meetings  which  they  enter  hear  from  them.  If  some- 
times they  use  the  '* hammer'*  a  little,  it  is  because 
they  want  to  be  sure  that  their  pitchers  are  broken  and 
their  light  shining.^^  Their  circumstances  and  views 
combine  to  keep  them  pretty  constantly  on  the  firing 
line,  and  between  themselves  is  a  more  than  Freema- 
sonry, which  tends  toward  the  final  and  true  fraternity 
for  which  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  is  striving  and  to 
which  it  will  ultimately  come,  in  which  *Hhere  is  neither 
East  nor  West,  border  nor  breed,  nor  birth." 

In  many  cities  where  traveling-men  in  large  numbers 
pass  their  Sundays  the  Gideons  hold  a  Sunday  night 
meeting  in  hotel  parlors,  or  in  other  rooms  which  are 
frequently  placed  at  their  disposal  without  expense  to 
them.  These  are  always  gospel  services  of  a  distinctively 
evangelistic  character,  and  frequently  they  are  largely 
attended  and  lead  to  definite  religious  results.  As  the 
membership  of  the  order  now  numbers  well  up  into  the 
thousands,  and  as  these  men  are  constantly  on  the  move, 
the  Gideon  brotherhood  is  a  splendid  advertising  agency 
for  the  distribution  of  Christian  literature.  The  maga- 
zine which  represents  the  body  is  known  as  The  Gideon. 
Many  cards  and  tracts  are  used  in  doing  personal  work. 
The  most  striking  undertaking  of  the  Gideons  has  been 
their  effort  to  put  a  copy  of  the  Bible  into  every  hotel 
bedroom  of  America.  Proprietors  of  hotels  have  rarely 
refused    to    permit    this    work    to    be    done,    and    the 

*»  Judges  7:  20. 

269 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Churches,  after  listening  to  Gideon  addresses,  have  con- 
tributed large  sums  of  money  to  the  carrying  out  of  this 
purpose,  so  that  between  one  and  two  hundred  thousand 
copies  of  the  Word  of  God,  secured  at  special  rates 
through  the  Bible  societies,  have  been  placed  where 
they  are  certain  to  be  seen  by  men  just  before  they  re- 
tire for  the  night  and  the  first  thing  on  awakening  in 
the  morning.  Enough  evidences  of  deep  religious  im- 
pressions made  through  the  medium  of  these  Bibles 
have  been  obtained  to  greatly  encourage  those  men  who 
have  been  active  in  their  distribution.  Far  greater  re- 
sults of  such  an  enterprise  must,  however,  have  occurred 
than  will  ever  be  made  known  to  its  authors. 

The  practical  value  of  the  distribution  of  Bibles  by 
the  Gideons  has  been  recognized  by  many  secular  jour- 
nals, sometimes  in  serious  expressions  of  approval,  and 
sometimes  in  semi-comic  but  really  commendatory 
phrases,  as  in  the  following  editorial  of  one  of  the  popu- 
lar magazines:  *'0f  course  it  isn't  a  new  thing  to  have 
Bibles  in  the  hotel  bedrooms.  The  hotels  used  to  have 
them,  but  the  hotels  of  twenty-five  years  ago  are  mostly 
gone,  and  their  Bibles  with  them ;  and  in  the  new  hotels 
that  give  you  hot  and  cold  everything,  telephone,  press 
the  button  twice  for  Martini  and  three  times  for  Man- 
hattan, and  all  that,  we  do  n't  remember  to  have  noticed 
much  provision  of  Bible.  So  the  work  of  the  Gideons 
is  timely,  especially  in  Boston,  where  the  Bible  is  histo- 
rical, and  in  San  Francisco,  that  lately  had  an  earth- 
quake. "^9 

Very  interesting  is  the  following  statement  of  effects 
of  Gideon  Bible  distribution :  * '  *  The  Gideons, '  the  Chris- 


^  "Harper's  Weekly,"  March  11,  1911,  which  also  says:  "There 
is  much  complaint  that  the  Bible  in  these  days  is  n't  half  enough  read. 
Reading  is  very  largely  a  matter  of  habit.  Hotel  bedrooms  are  good 
places  to  surprise  people  with  opportunities  to  read  the  Bible,  because 
travelers  commonly  leave  their  habits  at  home,  and  are  ready  for  new 


270 


AUXILIARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

tian  Commercial  Travelers'  Association  of  America,  have 
placed  over  70,000  Bibles^**  in  bedrooms  of  hotels  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Canada.  The  proprietor  of  a  hotel 
near  St.  Louis  noticed  that  the  introduction  of  these 
Bibles  resulted  in  doubling  the  electric  light  bill,  but 
said  he  was  willing  to  have  it  even  larger  if  occasioned 
by  Bible  reading.  A  young  man  from  Georgia  testified : 
*I  went  into  my  room  at  a  hotel  some  time  ago,  and 
saw  on  my  table  a  Bible  bearing  the  *' Gideon  stamp." 
It  was  the  first  Bible  I  had  seen  for  many  years.  It 
reminded  me  of  my  mother.  I  sat  down  and  read  it, 
finding  many  passages  she  had  read  to  me  in  my  boy- 
hood days,  and  I  confess  that  it  went  to  my  heart  as 
nothing  ever  did  before.  That  night  I  went  to  prayer- 
meeting,  found  Christ,  and  have  been  serving  Him  and 
reading  my  Bible  ever  since.'  "^^ 

^This  number  was  an  understatement,   as  at  the  time  of  its  making 
considerably  more  than   100,000   Bibles  had  been  placed. 
»i  "Men's  Record  and  Missionary  Review,"  October,  1911. 


271 


XYI 

DEMOCRATIC  BROTHERHOODS  OP  BRITAIN 

PLEASANT  SUNDAY  AFTERNOON  MOVEMENT 

'  *  Brotherhood  and  Democracy,  ' '  to  use  the  title  of  the 
work  which  represents  the  movement/  have  for  some 
years  been  fostered  in  Great  Britain  by  an  organization 
which  now  claims  more  than  half  a  million  members, 
gathered  from  ^'all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men."  The 
title  of  this  society,  the  Pleasant  Sunday  Afternoon 
Brotherhood,  gives  no  adequate  impression  of  the  seri- 
ous religious-social  purpose  which  underlies  its  efforts. 
The  attempt  is  nothing  less  than  to  teach  a  * '  democratic 
religion"  leading  to  a  *' practical  Christianity"  full  of 
love  and  of  good  works.  The  ultimate  aim  is  a  social 
state  which  shall  bring  upon  earth  the  Kingdom  of 
Christ,  and  whose  benefits  shall  be  universally  dis- 
tributed. 

The  motif  which  underlies  the  actual  achievements 
and  the  future  plans  of  this  brotherhood  was  very 
clearly  stated  by  an  able  representative  at  one  of  the 
great  conferences  of  the  organization.  *'In  a  very  real 
sense  the  Brotherhood  Movement  represents  a  new  de- 
parture in  the  development  of  society.  There  have,  of 
course,  been  many  democratic  combinations  in  the  past, 
but  they  have  usually  been  for  the  purpose  of  defense 
against  oppression,  or  for  some  specific  purpose.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  object  has  been  entirely  material. 
Take  the  case  of  the  trade  union  movement  as  an  ex- 

^  "Brotherhood  and  Democracy,"  William  Ward.  Pleasant  Sunday 
Afternoon,  Brotherhood  Publishing  House,  London. 

272 


DEMOCRATIC  BROTHERHOODS  OF  BRITAIN 

ample.  Here  the  people  came  together  for  a  common 
purpose  of  defense.  They  realized  that  in  their  strug- 
gle with  capital  their  only  protection  was  the  right  of 
collective  action  and  bargaining,  and  that  in  order  to 
secure  and  develop  that  right  they  must  make  common 
cause.  No  doubt  the  movement  developed  a  cohesive 
and,  in  some  degree,  altruistic  spirit  among  its  followers, 
but  its  raison  d'etre  was  purely  the  attainment  of  ma- 
terial things.  Take  the  case  of  the  co-operative  move- 
ment. No  doubt  there  was  in  the  early  days  of  thia 
movement  a  spirit  of  idealism  at  work  among  its  found- 
ers; but  its  drift  soon  became  very  definitely  material, 
and,  though  it  would  be  difficult  to  exaggerate  the 
service  it  has  performed  to  society,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  in  the  mind  of  any  one  who  studies  the  movement 
that  that  drift  has  continued.  So  one  might  continue 
with  many  other  movements  of  the  last  century:  the 
Friendly  Societies,  which  were  an  attempt  on  the  part 
of  the  poor  to  protect  themselves  against  the  most  fa- 
miliar attacks  on  human  happiness;  and  the  old  Me- 
chanics' Institute  movement,  which  was  an  attempt  to 
open  to  the  poor  that  book  of  knowledge  which  in  those 
days  was  closed  to  all  except  the  prosperous.  That  waa 
a  noble  ideal ;  but  it  was  primarily  intellectual  and  had 
little  to  do  with  the  idea  of  social  betterment. 

**Now,  that  is  the  root  idea,  implicit  even  if  not 
stated,  of  the  Brotherhood  Movement.  It  has  not 
emerged,  like  trade  unionism,  out  of  specific  industrial 
conditions,  nor  like  co-operation  of  friendly  societies, 
from  the  very  healthy  desire  to  protect  one's  self  against 
the  blows  of  Fate  and  to  secure  the  profits  of  one's  trad- 
ing for  one's  self.  It  has  emerged  out  of  a  definite  de- 
sire to  make  the  world  a  better  world  for  man's  brief 
earthly  dwelling.  It  is  an  instinctive  attempt  to  get 
back  to  the  primitive  ideals  of  Christianity.  Those 
18  273 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

ideals  were  the  brotherhood  of  men  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  divine  will  ^on  earth,  as  it  is  in  heaven.' 
The  failure  of  the  Churches  has  too  often  been  in  leav- 
ing *the  earth'  out — ^in  divorcing  religion  from  secular 
affairs;  in  keeping  it  in  a  Sunday  water-tight  compart- 
ment, away  from  the  contamination  of  the  weekday 
world.  Now,  a  religion  that  is  thus  isolated  from  the 
common  things  of  life  is  a  religion  that  is  dead.  Re- 
ligion, to  be  vital,  must  not  only  set  out  to  change  the 
heart  of  the  individual;  it  must  set  out  to  change  the 
heart  of  society.  Do  not  let  me  be  misunderstood.  Do 
not  let  us,  in  our  zeal  for  social  justice,  forget  that  our 
first  duty  is  to  cultivate  our  own  garden.  The  King- 
dom of  God  is  within  us,  and  no  perfect  social  machine 
will  ever  bring  peace  to  the  heart  that  is  filled  with  envy 
and  hate  and  selfishness. 

*The  mind  is  its  own  place,  and  in  itself 
Can  make  a  heaven  of  hell,  a  hell  of  heaven.' 

This  is  profoundly  true.  But  there  is  another  truth, 
and  it  is  this:  that  before  you  can  appeal  to  the  soul 
of  a  man  you  must  give  him  conditions  in  which  the  soul 
can  live  and  grow."^ 

"With  this  clearly-defined  conception  of  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  brotherhood  before  the  mind, 
the  history  of  the  movement  will  be  more  illuminating. 
Several  years  since  an  international  crusade  was  under- 
taken by  the  English  brotherhoods,  and  companies 
numbering  as  high  as  two  hundred  and  fifty  persons  of 
all  social  classes  went  to  various  continental  cities  to 
bring  to  European  w^orking-men  the  message  of  Chris- 

^Mr.  A.  Gr.  Gardiner,  Editor  "Daily  News,"  London,  September, 
1911.  Reported  in  the  organ  of  the  movement,  "The  P.  S.  A.  Brother- 
hood Journal,"  for  October.  See  also  "The  Brotherhood  Year-Book." 
"The  Christian  Commonwealth,"  113  Salisbury  Square,  London,  E.  0., 
is  another  medium  used  by  the  brotherhood  to  set  forth  its  religious- 
social  ideals. 

274 


DEMOCRATIC  BROTHERHOODS  OF  BRITAIN 

tian  democracy.  Many  of  these  persons  paid  their  own 
expenses  on  these  trips,  and  for  them  some  made  con- 
siderable sacrifice.  At  Lille,  the  industrial  center  of 
Northern  France,  a  handbill,  used  also  at  Liege  in 
Belgium  for  the  same  purpose,  set  forth  in  terse  sen- 
tences the  principles  which  the  brotherhoods  wished  to 
proclaim  to  their  continental  friends,  and  which  give 
the  core  of  the  movement. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  bill,  printed  in  large  letters,  are 
the  words:  ''Jesus  Christ — Solidarite — Fraternite — Mu- 
tualite — :Bonheur — Prosperite — Confiance.  Paix  Entre 
Les  Peuples." 

The  body  of  the  circular  contained,  first,  the  state- 
ments referred  to,  and  then  a  description  of  the  organi- 
zation and  activities  of  the  societies. 


"Nous  repr^sentons  jpltLs  de  2,000  societies  et  'plus  de  500,000 
membres. 

Notre  Association  est  laique.  C'est  nous  qui  elisons  chaque  ann^e 
nos  chefs  qui  ne  re9oivent  aucune  remuneration  pour  leurs  services. 

Nous  sommes  anticlericaux,  en  ce  sens  que  nous  reponssons  et 
combattons  toute  domination  eccl^siastique.  La  seule  religion  vraie 
est  pour  nous  celle  qui  aide  I'homme  ^  devenir  meilleur. 

Nous  ne  reclamons  de  nos  membres  aucune  declation  de  foi. 

Nous  somme  m^contents  de  I'etat  social  actuel,  et  nous  6tudions 
tous  les  probl^mes  sociaux  ^  lumi^re  de  I'Evangile  avec  la  volonte  de 
les  r^sondre. 

Nous  attendons  de  nouveaux  cieux  et  une  nouvelle  terre  ovl  la 
justice  habitera. 

Notre  foi  est  en  Dieu  le  P^re. 

Notre  devise  est :  Nous  n'avons  qu'un  seul  Maitre,  Jesus-Christ, 
et  tous  les  hommes  sont  fr^res. 

Notre  rfegle  de  vie  est  cette  parole  de  Jesus-Christ  dans  le  Nou- 
veau  Testament :  "Aimez  vous  les  ims  les  autres.'* 

Next  follows  the  statement  that  each  society  or 
brotherhood  is  divided  into  different  sections,  and  the 
outline  of  organization  is  presented; 

275 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

SECTIONS    DE    CHAQUE   SOCIETE 

Comite  de  propagande ;  Caisse  d'^ppargue  mutuelle; 

Comit^  pour  visitor  rdguli^rement  Caisse  d'excursions; 

les  membres  ;  Society  de  tempdrance; 

Fonds  de  secours  pour  les  mem-  Society  de  ddbats; 

bres    malades   et  sans    travail  Society  de  sports; 

(mutualite) ;  Choer  et  orchestra,  lesquels  se  font 

Bourse    de    travail    (bureau    de-  entendre  a  toutes  nos  reunions. 

placement) ; 

Evidently  this  manifesto^  attracted  great  attention 
in  the  manufacturing  districts  in  which  it  was  circu- 
lated. This  proclamation  of  a  lay  brotherhood,  free 
from  ecclesiastical  domination  and  a  specific  creed,  but 
believing  in  the  Fatherhood  of  God  and  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Jesus  Christ,  proved  to  be  not  an  ineffective  appeal, 
even  to  the  unchurched  and  radical  workingmen  of  Lille 
and  Liege.  A  description  of  the  meeting  at  Lille,  writ- 
ten by  Professor  Paul  Passy  of  Paris,  and  printed  in 
the  monthly  magazine  of  which  he  is  editor,*  gives  a 
vivid  sense  of  the  effect  produced.  The  streets  were 
crowded  when  the  British  company  arrived  at  the  rail- 
way station.  So  dense  was  the  throng  that  these  Chris- 
tian crusaders  could  hardly  make  their  way  to  the 
Bourse  du  Travail,  where  the  working-class  organiza- 
tions of  the  district  awaited  their  coming.  Even  the 
house  windows  were  filled  with  people,  and  it  was  with 
considerable  difficulty  that  the  British  invaders  could 
get  into  the  place  of  meeting,  outside  of  which  five  or 
six  thousand  disappointed  people  clamored  for  entrance. 
An  overflow  meeting  had  to  be  organized,  and  the  in- 
side speakers,  after  finishing  their  addresses,  repeated 
them  in  the  open  air.  Of  the  speech  of  Keir  Hardie, 
the  leader  of  the  British   Labor  Party,   who   gave   a 

^  The  complete  handbill  is  printed  in  "Brotherhood  and  Democracy," 
p.  119. 

**'L'Espoir  dn  Monde."  The  article  is  entitled  "The  Dawn."  The 
author  is  known  in  Europe  as  an  ardent  social  reformer  and  advocate 
of  Christianity. 

276 


DEMOCRATIC  BROTHERHOODS  OF  BRITAIN 

plain  avowal  of  the  influence  of  Jesus  Christ  upon  his 
own  life  and  of  the  value  of  Christianity  to  laboring 
men,^  Professor  Passy  says:  **The  most  important  fea- 
ture was  the  fine  speech  by  Mr.  Keir  Hardie,  embodying 
in  magnificent  language  both  the  social  and  spiritual 
aspirations  of  the  working-classes,  and  indicating  what 
their  attitude  should  be  with  regard  to  Christ.  In  spite 
of  its  beauty,  however,  it  was  not  this  speech  which  in- 
terested me  most.  *  It  was  the  attitude  of  the  crowd,  of 
these  some  two  thousand  socialist  workingmen,  who 
listened  to  this  teaching  so  new  to  them;  it  was  this  I 
observed  with  such  a  keen  emotion.  It  was  easy  to 
follow  the  feelings  with  which  they  were  animated.  At 
first  they  listened  with  wonder;  then  they  were  per- 
plexed; then  began  to  mistrust.  These  men  spoke  of 
God,  of  Jesus  Christ,  of  the  Gospel;  were  they  ^gam- 
moning ? '  Was  it  not  some  ruse,  some  dodge  to  wheedle 
these  poor  men,  in  order  to  put  them  in  the  bondage  of 
some  other  form  of  ecclesiasticism  ? 

**They  were  soon  reassured,  however.  This  man 
with  the  strenuous  and  yet  kindly  aspect  who  was  before 
them,  was  it  not  Keir  Hardie,  the  old  collier,  whose  de- 
votion to  the  working  classes  has  been  affirmed  a  thou- 
sand times  ?  Were  not  those  who  were  gathered  round 
him  Delory  and  Ghesquiere,  their  own  socialist  members 
of  Parliament;  Y.  Renard,  the  well-known  authority 
on  labor  questions?  No!  there  was  no  need  to  fear  a 
trap ;  they  might  rest  assured  that  their  own  impressions 
would  guide  them  correctly. 

**And  then,  marvelous  thing!  The  religious  instinct 
awakened  in  these  poor  men,  all  the  stronger,  perhaps, 
because  it  had  been  lying  dormant  for  so  long  a  time; 
and  they  heard  with  increasing  interest  the  Christian 
statements  of  the  orators.  Then  the  interest  turned  to 
approval  which  gradually  became  more  and  more  ar- 

»  "Brotherhood  and  Democracy,"  ut  supra,  p.  110. 

277 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

dent;  afid  towards  the  end  of  Keir  Hardie's  speech  it 
was  with  stampings  of  enthusiasm  that  these  men  who 
both  call  themselves  and  believe  themselves  to  be  ma- 
terialists, cheered  the  words  of  the  old  Scotch  tribune 
on  the  Fatherhood  of  God  and  the  work  of  Jesus  Christ. 
For  a  moment  it  seemed  as  if  the  people  had  rediscov- 
ered their  Savior. 

**I  said  'for  a  moment.'  Who  can  tell  how  deep 
the  impressions  then  received  were,  or  how  lasting  they 
will  be?  Who  can  tell  what  will  follow  on  this  beauti- 
ful Whitsun  holiday? 

**  However,  I  feel  that  I  am  perfectly  right  in  say- 
ing that  a  breach  has  been  made  in  the  thick  ramparts 
of  prejudice  which  separate  our  people  from  the  true 
gospel.  All  those  who  applauded  the  brotherhood  ora- 
tors at  Lille  can  now  say  in  all  sincerity:  *It  is  not 
true  that  a  man  who  believes  in  God,  who  loves  Jesus 
Christ,  is  necessarily  a  participator  in  exploitation  and 
tyranny.  A  man  can  say,  as  Keir  Hardie  said,  that 
it  is  the  spirit  of  Christ  which  leads  men  to  take  up 
the  cause  of  the  oppressed  without  being  a  hypocrite  or 
an  imbecile.'  And  many  will  undoubtedly  realize  the 
necessity  of  making  himself  well  acquainted  with  this 
Christ  whom  he  has  hitherto  ignored.  This  will  prob- 
ably be  the  dawn  of  a  new  era.'' 

Paris,  Brussels,  and  Charleroi  are  among  the  conti- 
nental cities  which  have  been  visited  by  the  brother- 
hood and  in  which  unique  and  remarkable  events  have 
occurred  leading  to  the  formation  of  a  number  of  local 
societies  and  to  the  awakening  of  interest  in  the  teach- 
ings of  Christ. 

What,  then,  is  the  somewhat  trivially  named  Pleas- 
ant Sunday  Afternoon  Brotherhood  in  the  land  of  its 
nativity,  and  how  did  it  arise  ?  Under  the  caption,  * '  The 
Evolution  of  the  Movement,"  the  brotherhood  historian 
turns  his  retrospective  thought  to  the  work  of  John 

278 


DEMOCRATIC  BROTHERHOODS  OF  BRITAIN 

"Wesley  and  the  evangelical  preachers  of  two  centuries 
ago,  describing  the  effect  of  their  teachings  upon  the  de- 
mocracy.® He  also  refers  to  the  origination  of  Sunday 
schools  under  Robert  Raikes,  and  to  the  Quaker  Robert 
Lancaster's  scheme  of  universal  education,  which  in 
1870  was  brought  to  a  practical  result  by  the  efforts  of 
another  Quaker,  Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Forster,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  passing  with  compulsory  clauses  the  General 
Education  Act.  These  movements,  he  thinks,  lend  a 
background  and  furnished  inspiration  to  the  idea  which 
came  to  John  Blackham  of  West  Bromwich  in  the  year 
1875.  This  Congregational  deacon,  thinks  Mr.  Ward, 
anticipated  G.  K.  Chesterton's  thought,  which  *'he  is 
continually  dinning  into  our  ears,  that  a  Christian  ought 
not  to  be  a  morose,  sad,  or  pessimistic  individual,  but 
one  of  the  happiest,  one  of  the  jolliest  fellows  alive ;  that 
religious  ways  should  be  ways  of  pleasantness.''^  Mr. 
Blackham  went  to  Birmingham  to  hear  Moody,  but  could 
not  get  in.  "I  asked,"  he  has  said,  ** where  I  could  see 
the  largest  Bible  class  at  work.  Following  the  direc- 
tions given  to  me,  I  came  to  a  room  where  about  thirty- 
five  young  fellows  were  assembled,  listening  to  their 
teacher,  a  magnificent  man,  with  a  marvelous  store  of 
information.  His  address  was  so  long  and  so  good  that 
my  head  and  back  ached  with  the  prolonged  attention. 
I  went  home  pondering  the  problem.  I  wondered  how 
it  was  that  Moody  could  get  an  audience  of  four  thou- 
sand, while  this  splendid  Bible-class  teacher  could  only 
draw  about  thirty,  and  as  I  thought  upon  this  the  first 
light  broke  in,  and  I  saw  clearly  why  we  had  failed, 
and  how  we  might  succeed.  I  learnt  how  not  to  do  it. 
I  realized  that  if  the  men  were  to  be  won,  we  must  give 
them  a  service  neither  too  long  nor  too  learned.  We 
must  avoid  dullness,  prolixity,  gloom,  and  restraint." 

•'•Brotherhood  and  Democracy,"  p.  125  ff. 
»0p.  cit.,  p.  127. 

279 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  superficiality  of  this  diagnosis  of  the  disparity 
between  Moody's  ephemeral  campaign  and  the  Bible 
teacher's  intensive  and  permanent  work  will  be  at  once 
remarked  by  the  reader.  Second  thought,  however,  con- 
vinces one  that  much  may  be  said  for  the  determination 
to  avoid  lengthy  cheerlessness  and  heaviness  in  efforts 
to  reach  men. 

Mr.  Blackham  was  so  convinced  that  by  the  converse 
of  these  qualities  men  could  be  drawn  to  religious  serv- 
ices in  masses  that  he  requested  the  superintendent  of 
his  home  Sunday  school  to  call  a  meeting  of  its  officials, 
to  whom  he  explained  his  new  convictions  and  asked 
for  a  free  hand  and  cordial  support  in  an  effort  to  re- 
alize his  ideals.  Consent  was  readily  given.  By  a  but- 
ton-holing campaign  without  any  public  advertisement 
one  hundred  and  twenty  men  were  gathered  for  the  first 
meeting.  While  *  Hackling"  men  on  the  street  in  order 
to  get  them  to  the  meeting  Mr.  Blackham  fell  to  saying : 
"Look  here,  I  am  going  to  start  a  Pleasant  Sunday 
Afternoon  Class;  it  will  be  short  and  bright,  and  will 
only  last  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  Will  you  come  next 
Sunday  and  see  how  you  like  it?''  This  name,  used 
accidentally  or,  as  Mr.  Blackham  thought,  providen- 
tially, became  attached  to  the  new  society.^  **  Brief, 
Bright,  and  Brotherly,"  was  Mr.  Blackham 's  statement 
of  the  characteristics  of  his  work,  and  he  adopted  also 
the  Scriptural  motto,  **One  is  your  Master,  even  Christ, 
and  all  ye  are  brethren." 

The  first  society  was  followed  almost  immediately 
by  others,  until  several  hundreds  of  brotherhoods  were 
established  in  the  Midlands.    Many  of  these  and  of  the 

•Another  name  is  used  by  these  societies.  Dr.  Bufus  W.  Miller, 
of  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip,  describing  in  the  "Brother- 
hood star"  a  visit  to  the  English  brotherhoods,  says:  "The  most 
■widely  known  men's  organization,  however,  is  known  either  as  Tha 
Pleasant  Sunday  Afternoon  Brotherhood,  or  The  Men's  Own.  These 
brotherhoods  are  found  in  all  the  dissenting  ChurcheS' — that  is  Baptist, 
jOongregationalist,  Presbyterian,  and  Wesleyan  Churches." 

280 


,    DEMOCRATIC  BROTHEBHOODS  OF  BRITAIN 

later  societies  have  large  memberships,  as  will  be  noted 
from  the  various  statements,  giving  such  figures  as: 
Ilford,  over  2,000;  Marsh  Lane,  Bootle,  over  700;  Salis- 
bury, Wesleyan,  600;  Salem,  Leeds,  2,000;  East  Ham, 
over  2,600.  Some  of  the  largest  of  these  societies  be- 
gan with  small  numbers  and  with  no  great  encourage- 
ment, and  of  one  which  has  never  attained  great  size  a 
laboring  man,  being  asked  **What  kind  of  a  brother- 
hood have  you  got  T '—replied,  **Well,  taking  everything 
into  consideration,  it 's  the  finest  brotherhood  in  Eng- 
land, bar  none."^ 

In  1885  Mr.  Blackham  was  invited  by  Mr.  Henry 
Thorne,  traveling  secretary  of  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association,  to  begin  a  national  advocacy  of  the 
movement  which  he  had  started.  He  acceded  to  Mr. 
Thome's  special  request  that  he  inaugurate  his  larger 
work  at  Derby,  and  from  that  place  the  brotherhood 
spread  to  Nottingham,  Leicester,  Sheffield,  Manchester, 
and  elsewhere. 

A  national  council  of  the  brotherhood  was  formed 
at  a  conference  held  at  Birmingham  in  1905.  The  first 
president  was  the  noted  Rev.  F.  B.  Meyer,  who  acted 
for  two  years  as  the  head  of  the  organization.  In  most 
of  the  centers  of  Great  Britain  the  societies  are  yoked 
together  in  city,  county,  and  district  federations,  that 
in  London  for  a  long  time  increased  at  the  rate  of  a 
new  society  a  week.  Numerous  societies  have  also  been 
organized  in  Canada,  where  a  National  Council  was 
formed  in  1912,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  United 
States,  South  and  West  Africa.  Great  and  numerous 
sisterhoods  have  been  organized  and  are  allied  to  the 
men's  societies  in  many  places.  The  majority  of  the 
brotherhoods  hold  their  meetings  in  the  churches  of 
the  various  denominations,  but  some  are  lodged  in  halls, 
theaters,  or  in  special  buildings  of  their  own.     Among 

»  "Brotherhood  and  Democracy,"  op.  cit.,  p.  192. 

281 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

the  activities  in  whicli  various  organizations  have  en- 
gaged are  civic  and  temperance  work,  public-house  in- 
vasion and  evangelism,  relief  work  of  the  most  practical 
kind,  emigrant  care,  concerts  and  entertainments, 
thrift  and  mutual  aid,  classes  for  the  study  of  the  Bible 
and  of  social  and  economic  questions,  Church  improve- 
ment; indeed,  in  various  places  about  all  the  forms  of 
work  possible  in  societies  of  the  kind.^* 

One  of  the  strongest  branches  of  the  Pleasant  Sun- 
day Afternoon  Brotherhood  is  that  of  Scotland,  which 
is  now  known  as  the  Scottish  Brotherhood  Union.  The 
credit  of  the  introduction  of  the  organization  into  the 
northern  kingdom  is  due  to  the  St.  Thomas'  Wesleyan 
Brotherhood,  Glasgow,  formed  in  1894,  with  fifty  men, 
and  which  soon  grew  to  have  a  thousand  members.  In 
the  same  year  at  the  Canal  Boatmen's  Institute,  Port 
Dundas,  the  second  Scottish  brotherhood  was  established, 
largely  through  the  influence  of  a  remarkable  char- 
acter of  whom  Mr.  Moody  said,  *' Never  have  I  known 
a  man  who,  in  my  opinion,  lived  nearer  the  Master  or 
sought  to  do  His  will  more  fuUy.'*^^  When  the  idea 
of  a  brotherhood  for  Port  Dundas  was  suggested  to 
Professor  Henry  Drummond  *Hhis  'friend  of  men'  saw 
a  great  opportunity  in  the  proposal  and  had  the  *  men's 
meeting'  started  at  once,  himself  becoming  the  first 
president  and  giving  the  three  opening  addresses. "  ^^ 
This  society  still  continues  with  evidences  of  usefulness. 

From  the  two  pioneer  organizations  named  the  mod- 
ern Scottish  brotherhood  has  grown.  In  1912,  sixteen 
years  after  the  first  society  was  formed,  the  city  of 

"  Illustrative  incidents  revealing  the  definite  features  of  this  v?-ork 
are  found  in  the  closing  chapter  of  "Brotherhood  and  Democracy," 
"Stories  from  Life,"  pp.  183-212,  and  also  in  the  collections  of  "Notes 
on  Illustrations,"  "Brotherhood  Religious  and  Social  Activities,"  which 
followsi. 

"Vide  "Life  of  Henry  Drummond,"  George  Adam  Smith,  p.  9. 

^2  Program  and  Prospectus  of  the  Scottish  Brotherhood  Conference, 
Edinburgh,   November   11,   1911,  p.    14  ff. 

282 


.  DEMOCRATIC  BROTHERHOODS  OF  BRITAIN 

Edinburgh  alone  reported  over  eight  thousand  mem- 
bers. ^^  At  the  same  time  the  west  of  Scotland  and  the 
Glasgow  and  district  federations  had  over  forty  brother- 
hoods, fifteen  meetings  on  the  Fife  Coast  had  attained 
much  strength,  and  the  power  of  the  movement  was  in- 
dicated by  the  following  typical  memberships  of  leading 
organizations:  St.  Mark's  Institutional  Church  Brother- 
hood, Glasgow,  1,000;  Fountainbridge,  Edinburgh,  the 
first  brotherhood  of  that  city,  600;  Leith  Brotherhood, 
1,022;  Institutional  Church,  Aberdeen,  750;  Denburn, 
750;  Forfar,  400;  Wick,  700.  When  the  Scottish  union 
was  fully  consummated  at  Edinburgh  in  1911,  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  of  these  brotherhoods  were  represented, 
and  the  effect  of  the  work  done  by  them  during  the  first 
two  decades  of  the  movement  is  thus  expressed:  "Both 
highlands  and  lowlands  have  been  touched  and,  we  be- 
lieve, been  bettered  by  it.  In  its  train  it  has  brought 
music  and  gladness,  enlightenment  and  hope  to  all, 
books  and  benefits  to  most,  and  holidays  to  some.  En- 
couragement to  men  in  difficult  places,  and  to  women 
who  had  lost  hope.  Home  problems  have  been  solved, 
fires  kindled,  and  cupboards  stocked.  Suits  have  been 
measured  for,  and  bank  accounts  opened.  Brotherhood 
used  to  be  a  word  heard  of  in  song  and  story  and  too 
seldom  realized.  Now  it  lives  and  moves  up  and  down 
our  land  with  hands  of  helpfulness  outstretched  and 
arms  that  are  long  and  strong.  Masters  and  men  have 
shaken  hands,  and  rich  and  poor  have  labored  shoulder 
to  shoulder  in  the  uplifting  of  the  brother  who  was 
down.  Good  old  Sunday  habits  have  been  revived,  and 
family  altars  restored.  Neglected  Bibles  have  been  read, 
or  new  ones  obtained,  and  the  church  bells  have  now  a 
joyous  sound,  where  once  they  had  no  charm.  But  best 
of  all,  men  who  were  sitting  in  darkness  and  in  the 
shadow  of  death  have  seen  a  Great  Light  and  have  risen 

"  Annual  report  of  William  Cairns,  president. 

283 


CHRISTIAN  BBOTHERHOODS 

up  to  welcome  it,  and  are  now  walking  in  the  Gleam! 
And  the  Good  Physician  has  drawn  near  to  these  ex- 
pectant crowds  of  laboring  men  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week,  and  laid  His  hand  upon  lives  that  were  drifting 
and  wasting,  and  cleansed  and  healed  and  claimed  them 
for  Himself.  To-day,  thanks  to  the  Brotherhood  Move- 
ment in  Scotland,  we  have  battalions  of  men  who  have 
been  won  from  the  ranks  of  indifilerence  now  facing  the 
world  of  Soldiers  of  the  Cross. ''^* 

A  publication  of  the  Morningside  Brotherhood,  of 
Edinburgh,  ascribes  the  success  which  has  attended  the 
society's  history  to  the  fact  that  it  is:  *'l.  A  band  of 
brothers;  2.  A  religion  that  means  business;  3.  All  for 
each  and  each  for  all;  4.  In  defense  of  the  home."  An- 
other expression,  of  the  same  source,  answers  the  ques- 
tion. What  is  the  Movement?  as  follows:  **1.  A  great 
movement  of  Christian  Democracy;  2.  A  great  move- 
ment of  Christian  Brotherhood ;  3.  A  great  movement  of 
Christian  Cheerfulness."  Each  of  the  above  statements 
is  set  forth  with  explanatory  details.  ^^ 

The  criticisms  which  have  been  made  on  the  Pleasant 
Sunday  Afternoon  Brotherhoods  are  answered  in  the 
Brotherhood  Message  by  the  president.^*  It  has  been 
said  that  the  Sunday  afternoon  meetings  are  simply  en- 
tertainments, the  men  coming  to  be  amused.  The  an- 
swer is  made,  ''Come  and  see,"  and  with  this  is  joined 
the  statement,  **It  often  happened  that  'those  who  came 
to  scoff,  remained  to  pray.'  "  The  charge  of  being  po- 
litical rather  than  religious  is  denied,  and  it  is  shown 
that  the  concern  is  to  make  good  citizens  and  to  get 
men  to  look  upon  the  use  of  their  vote  as  a  religious  act. 
The  accusation  of  hostility  to  the  Churches  is  met  by  the 

""Scottish  Brotherhood  Conference,"  p.  30. 

*"  This  is  really  a  stock  pamphlet  issued  by  the  National  Council, 
and  adapted  to  local  uses  by  the  insertion  of  the  notices  of  individual 
brotherhoods. 

"Op.  cit.,  pp.  163,  164. 

284 


DEMOCRATIC  BROTHERHOODS  OF  BRITAIN 

statement  that  most  of  the  meetings  are  held  in  places 
of  worship,  nearly  two  thousand  of  which  have  been 
placed  freely  at  the  disposal  of  the  brotherhood."  The 
real  difficulty  of  the  organization,  as  conceived  by  its 
chief  officer,  is  that  the  ranks  contain  what  on  the  sur- 
face appear  to  be  two  distinct  schools  of  religious 
thought,^^  the  individualistic  and  the  social.  To  this 
seeming  division  he  addresses  his  earnest  thought  with 
the  purpose  of  showing  that  the  same  seeming  diversity 
of  views  existed  in  the  Apostolic  Church,  and  that  it 
finds  reconciliation  in  the  synthetic  teaching  of  Jesus 
and  of  several  of  His  chief  followers. 

To  come  back  to  the  point  of  starting,  it  is  evident 
that  in  the  conception  of  many  of  its  promoters  this 
brotherhood  is  far  more  than  a  pleasant  Sunday  after- 
noon matter;  moreover,  it  is  quite  apart  from  ordinary 
parish  brotherhoods  whose  eyes  are  not  lifted  much 
higher  than  the  common  round  of  community  matters 
and  the  local  benevolences.  This  society,  in  the  minds 
of  many  of  its  admirers,  is  a  new  Socialism  of  Christian 
inspiration  and  purpose.  To  quote  a  few  of  its  mots 
d 'usage,  it  is  said  to  introduce  *'a  new  and  important 
factor  in  the  religious  life  of  the  nation. "  ^^    It  is  called 

"An  intelligent  young  English  pastor  gives  me  the  opinion  that  in 
many  cases  the  Brotherhood  is  no  help  to  the  Church,  and  that  the  chief 
local  offices  are  apt  to  get  into  the  hands  of  men  of  social  and  political 
popularity  who  have  little  religious  character  or  interest.  Natural 
leaders,  he  api>ears  to  think,  often  usurp  the  places  of  spiritual  leader- 
ship, and  they  turn  the  movement  away  from  the  culture  of  such 
Christian  faith  as  adds  to  Church  membership  and  to  the  vital  progress 
of  the  Kingdom.  On  the  other  hand,  a  thoughtful  British  Wesleyan 
pastor.  Rev.  John  H.  Goodman,  of  London,  has  informed  me  that  while 
it  must  be  admitted  that  the  serious  problem  is  that  from  a  Church 
standpoint  the  brotherhoods  add  little,  yet  they  are  felt  to  be  worthy 
of  support  as  having  teaching  value  and  as  tending  to  raise  the  tone  of 
citizenship.  Rev,  James  Lewis,  of  Cambridge,  to  whose  considerateness, 
as  to  that  of  several  others,  the  use  of  considerable  literature  has  been 
due,  said  to  me  much  the  same.  Sir  W.  R.  Nicoll,  in  his  address  on 
"A  Challenge  to  the  Brotherhood  Movement,"  speaks  high  praise,  but 
urges  better  use  of  its  power. 

"Ibid,  pp.  165-174. 

""Brotherhood  and  Democracy,"  p.   13. 

285 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

*'a  new  factor  in  religion.''  It  is  ** Democracy  and 
Christianity/'  *'As  we  get  a  firm  grasp  of  the  essen- 
tial basis  of  the  ethical  teaching  of  the  Carpenter  of 
Nazareth  we  are  convinced  that  it  contains  those  prin- 
ciples of  life  and  conduct  which  alone  will  give  a  per- 
fect solution  to  every  social  problem,  and  that  as  the 
democracy  yearns  and  strives  for  the  opportunity  to 
live  the  full,  free,  unfettered  life  God  intended  every 
man  should  enjoy,  instead  of  rejecting  Christianity  they 
will  embrace  it  as  the  means  of  their  social  salvation." 
**In  the  Brotherhood  Movement  we  have  taken  the 
Lord's  Prayer  as  our  charter,  and  in  that  prayer  we 
pray  for  everybody.  'When  ye  pray,  say,  **Our  Fa- 
ther." '  You  have  there  distinctly  laid  down  the  idea 
of  the  universal  brotherhood  of  man  based  on  the  idea 
of  the  common  Fatherhood  of  God.  The  prayer  includes 
the  whole  human  race.  One  of  the  outstanding  petitions 
is  that  which  says,  'Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread.' 
If  we  are  praying  for  everybody,  then  the  unemployed 
are  included  in  our  petition."  "Do  you  see  the  great 
principle  that  Jesus  Christ  here  lays  down?  He  de- 
clares it  to  be  a  vital  part  of  his  teaching  that  every 
man  should  have  the  chance  of  earning  his  living,  not 
as  a  charity  or  a  privilege  bestowed  on  him  by  some 
other  man,  but  as  a  divine  right.  Will  the  democracy 
reject  that?"  ''I  wish  I  could  prevail  on  you  men  to 
make  a  thorough  study  of  the  teaching  of  the  Bible  on 
the  Land  Question."  ''Read  carefully  the  enactments 
of  Moses  the  great  Lawgiver  and  see  how  we  have  devi- 
ated in  almost  every  essential  principle  from  his  teach- 
ing, with  the  result  that  there  exists  among  us  to-day 
such  a  state  of  poverty  among  the  masses  of  the  people 
as  was  utterly  impossible  under  his  teaching.  Give  your 
days  and  nights  to  a  study  of  the  twenty-fourth  chapter 
of  the  Book  of  Job.  The  writer  of  that  ancient  classic 
pronounces  a  curse  on  those  who  deprive  the  people 

286 


DEMOCRATIC  BROTHERHOODS  OF  BRITAIN 

of  their  God-given  inheritance  in  the  land,  and  shows 
how  a  landless  people  leads  to  other  forms  of  robbery 
and  violence,  to  poverty  and  destitution,  to  sweating 
and  oppression,  to  slums  and  overcrowding  in  cities, 
to  the  formation  of  a  criminal  class,  and  practically  all 
the  social  evils  that  are  the  curse  of  modern  society/' 
**  There  is  an  evolutionary  process  going  on  for  the  re- 
demption of  humanity,  and  the  keynote  of  the  twentieth 
century  is  being  sounded  by  the  men  and  women  of  the 
Brotherhood  Movement.  Instead  of  every  man  for  him- 
self, as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  it  will  be  every  man  for 
his  brother.  That  is  to  be  the  keynote  of  the  new  order, 
prophesied  by  the  prophets,  depicted  by  the  seers,  sung 
for  us  by  the  poets;  the  Golden  Age  when  there  shall 
be  no  poverty,  no  iniquity,  no  oppression,  no  man  tram- 
pling on  his  fellow-men,  but  peace  and  righteousness  and 
joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost  will  be  the  dominating  character- 
istics of  the  world.*'  **  'And  all  flesh  shall  see  it  to- 
gether.' There  shall  not  be  a  man,  woman,  or  child  on 
God's  earth  deprived  of  their  rightful  privilege  of  a 
fair  share  of  all  the  good  gifts  which  He  has  provided. 
This  glorious  world  with  all  its  boundless  resources,  with 
its  abundance  of  food  and  clothing  and  all  the  necessities 
of  life;  all  the  heritage  of  the  ages,  the  best  there  is  in 
art,  in  science,  in  literature,  in  philosophy,  shall  be 
freely  at  the  disposal  of  everybody.  'All  flesh  shall  see 
it  together.'  I  have  the  firm  conviction  that  this  great 
Brotherhood  Movement,  of  which  every  member  of  this 
society  is  a  unit,  has  been  raised  up  by  God  to  play  an 
important  part  in  the  realization  of  the  prophet's 
vision.  "2^ 

Who  that  reads  these  utterances  of  an  able  and  elo- 
quent lay  speaker  will  wonder  that  the  address  closed 

2"  Excerpts  from  an  address,  "Will  the  Democracy  Reject  Chris- 
tianity?" given  by  a  journalist  at  a  regular  brotherhood  meeting, 
op,  cit.,  pp.  32-46. 

287 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

in  a  tumult  of  applause,  or  that  after  singing  the  first 
verse  of  Felix  Adler's  ''Golden  City''  the  men  spon- 
taneously insisted  on  finishing  the  hymn: 

"Sing  we  of  the  Golden  City, 

Pictured  in  the  legends  old; 
Everlasting  light  shines  o  'er  it. 

Wondrous  things  of  it  are  told. 
Only  righteous  men  and  women 

Dwell  within  its  gleaming  walls; 
Wrong  is  banished  from  its  borders. 

Justice  reigns  throughout  its  halls. 

•*  We  are  builders  of  that  City, 

All  our  joys  and  all  our  groans 
Help  to  rear  its  shining  ramparts; 

All  our  lives  are  building-stones. 
For  that  City  we  must  labour. 

For  its  sake  bear  pain  and  grief^ 
In  it  find  the  end  of  living. 

And  the  anchor  of  belief. 

"And  the  work  that  we  have  bullded. 

Oft  with  bleeding  hands  and  tears. 
Oft  in  error,  oft  in  anguish. 

Will  not  perish  with  our  years. 
It  will  last,  and  shine  transfigured, 

In  the  final  reign  of  Right; 
It  will  pass  into  the  splendours 

Of  the  City  of  the  Light.'''^ 

It  was  a  strange  chance  which  brought  Mr.  Ward's 
book  of  ** Christian  Democracy"  into  my  hands  at  a 
summer  camp  on  the  beautiful  Straits  of  Mackinaw  at 
the  precise  moment  when  all  Great  Britain  was  breaking 
out  into  the  bitterness  of  an  industrial  war,  into  which 
I  thought  no  doubt  many  of  the  half  million  Christian 
brotherhood  men  must  be   plunging.     How   does  the 

^  "The  Fellowship  Hymn  Book,"  used  by  the  Pleasant  Sunday  After- 
noon Brotherhood  conjointly  with  the  National  Adult  Bible  School  Council, 
and  prepared  by  these  two  bodies,  contains  336  hymns,  including  with 
the  older  selections  many  new  and  progressive  socialistic  selections. 

288 


DEMOCRATIC  BROTHERHOODS  OF  BRITAIN 

peace  ideal,  I  queried,  and  how  do  the  fine-spun  theories 
of  unselfishness  and  the  enthusiasm  for  love  which  char- 
acterize this  movement  comport  with  this  bitter  strike, 
and  its  apparent  disregard  of  human  needs  and  rights? 
Will  the  outcome  be  such  as  to  convince  men  of  the  cer- 
tainty of  a  bread-and-butter  salvation  to  those  who 
strive?  Or  will  it  plunge  the  working  classes  into  op- 
position to  Christ,  since  they  must  oppose  many  who 
claim  to  be  His  followers  and  representatives?  Will 
the  result  be  faith  in  God  or  faith  in  man  and  in  com- 
binations of  men?  Spirituality  or  materialism,  which 
will  triumph ?22 

Thus  in  those  days  I  thought,  and  thus  I  still  think, 
for  not  by  one  victory,  nor  by  one  failure,  nor  by  many 
of  both  of  these  results  will  the  battles  for  human  com- 
fort and  for  divine  confidence  be  won.  And  since  the 
progress  of  civilization  and  of  universal  betterment 
will  be  uncertain,  and  its  results  slow,  will  the  demo- 
cratic brotherhood  realize  its  worldly  ambitions,  and 
thus  bring  faith  to  all  hungry  and  weary  toilers,  or 
will  it  lose  heart  and,  having  placed  its  faith  in  Utopia, 
grow  faint  of  heart  and  doubtful,  and  perhaps  turn  its 
back  on  God?    Who  can  say? 

Meantime  this  brotherhood  has  done  great  good  to 
many  individuals,  who  have  been  won  from  sin  by  its 
efforts ;  it  has  preached  much  gospel  which  is  on  a  plane 
above  the  reach  of  physical  conditions  and  disasters ;  and 
it  is  much  to  have  stirred  such  an  interest  in  the  hearts 
of  the  people^^  as  would  lead  a  man  like  George  Adam 

^  The  prompt  action  of  the  British  Government  in  effecting  the 
settlement  of  the  strike  by  arbitration  did  not  materially  alter  the 
tenor  of  the  reflections  which  this  matter  brings  up,  and  the  lapse  of 
time  and  the  events  which  have  since  occurred  have  not  persuaded  me 
to  rewrite  the  passage. 

23  "Zion's  Herald,"  Boston,  Methodist  Episcopal,  in  an  editorial, 
August  23,  1911,  declared:  "The  brotherhood  organizations  in  England 
are  doing  what  they  can  to  help  the  common  people  to  love,  while  not 
misusing  their  Sundays.  It  is  believed  that  much  mischief  arises  from 
a    monotonous    Sunday — ^indeed,    also,    from    a    monotonous    life.      Sach 

19  289 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

SmitH  to  aver  that  '*  nothing  has  been  seen  like  it  since 
the  Reformation.''^*  Perhaps  this  brotherhood,  like 
many  another  society,  may  apparently  fail  and  pass,  but 
even  then  it  may  be  found  that  it  has  uttered  a  true 
message  and  has  marked  the  path  of  progress  by  which 
the  universe  is  surely  coming  to  new  heavens  and  a 
new  earth.^^ 

monotony  kads  too  often,  by  reaction  from  its  dullness,  when  the  arresting 
demands  of  labor  are  periodically  intermitted,  to  drink  and  to  vice. 
The  'Pleasant  Sunday  Afternoons'  inaugurated  in  England,  while  exposed 
to  some  criticism  on  the  part  of  certain  evangelists,  are  not  devoid  of 
religious  exercises,  while  they  are  for  the  most  part  permeated  with  a 
religious  spirit.  While  a  certain  elasticity  is  allowed  by  the  leaders 
to  th«  term  'religious,'  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  Sunday  after- 
noon hour  so  spent  is  really  'pleasant,'  while  morally  stimulating  to 
the  people  who  attend  the   'Pleasant  Sunday  Afternoon'  gathering." 

^"Brotherhood   and  Democracy,"    Ibid,    p.    160. 

25  Two  British  Wesleyan  ministers,  Rev.  Wm.  Bradfield,  of  Ilkley,  and 
Rev.  George  H.  McNeal,  of  Sheffield,  first  informed  me  of  the  changes 
which  have  been  occasioned  by  the  development  of  this  movement  in 
the  direction  of  closer  Church  affiliation,  and  of  less  spectacular  as  well 
as  more  vital  brotherhood.     See  chapter  xviii. 


290 


XYII 

INTERDENOMINATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 
ANDREW  AND  PHILIP— BARACA  UNION 

At  a  little  later  period  than  that  of  the  organization  of 
the  brotherhoods  described  in  the  preceding  chapter,  in- 
terdenominational brotherhoods  arose  in  America  differ- 
ing from  these  societies  in  that  they  work  principally 
within  the  lines  of  individual  Churches  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  views  of  the  particular  bodies  to 
which  they  belong,  yet  are  loosely  held  together  and 
but  generally  governed  and  directed  by  the  medium  of 
a  central  office  and  by  conventions.  These  societies  are 
comparatively  modern,  and  the  first  of  them  to  which 
attention  is  called  is  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and 
Philip. 

**For  a  web  begun,  God  sends  thread,"  say  the 
French  and  Italians,  and  Rufus  W.  Miller,  associate 
pastor  of  the  Second  Reformed  Church,  Reading,  Pa., 
furnished  one  of  the  illustrations  of  this  fact.  The  first 
Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip  is  said  to  have  ex- 
isted in  Scotland,  and  the  relation  of  that  society  to 
the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  appears  in  histories  of 
the  latter.  In  turn  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  had 
its  influence  upon  the  mind  of  Dr.  Miller,  who  on 
]\Tay  4,  1888,  proposed  to  a  Bible  class^  of  fifteen  young 
men  that  they  adopt  the  St.  Andrew  rules  of  prayer 
and  of  service,  and  take  the  name  of  Brotherhood  of  An- 

*  '  'Both  the  St.  Andrew  Brotherhood  and  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew 
and  Philip  originated  in  young  men's  Bible  classes."  "Brotherhood 
Star,"  January,  1900. 

291 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

drew  and  Philip.^  With  no  thought  of  extension,  and 
*' solely  with  reference  to  the  needs  of  one  little  group 
of  young  men,  a  chapter  was  formed  which  was  to  be 
known  as  the  first  in  a  long  series  and  the  pioneer  of  a 
new  movement  in  the  evangelical  Churches."^ 

The  history  of  the  development  of  societies  from  a 
nucleus  is  a  very  similar  one.  The  first  chapter  of  the 
new  fraternity  very  soon  inspired  the  formation  of 
others,  fifteen  of  which  joined  in  a  union  with  the  parent 
chapter,  the  second  convention,  held  in  Philadelphia  in 
1890,  revealing  the  fact  that  there  were  thirty-five  chap- 
ters and  a  thousand  men  in  the  movement.  A  publica- 
tion to  be  known  as  the  Brotherhood  Star  was  author- 
ized, and  from  a  four-page  monthly  it  grew  into  a  very 
creditable  magazine.  The  idea  of  a  federation  of  chap- 
ters representing  various  denominations  was  also  favor- 
ably considered  at  the  Philadelphia  meeting. 

At  the  fourth  convention,  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1892,  defi- 
nite action  was  taken  looking  to  a  federal  constitution, 
and  the  same  year  saw  a  Federal  Council  of  Reformed 
and  Congregational  Chapters  formed  in  New  York  City. 
The  Federal  Constitution  was  here  drawn  up.  At  the 
Marble  Collegiate  Reformed  Church,  New  York,  in  1893, 
the  first  federal  convention  was  held,  and  it  marked  the 
completion  of  the  general  organization  and  plan  of  the 
Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip,  which  is  now  said 
to  be  represented  by  chapters  in  more  than  a  score  of 
denominations,  some  of  which,  however,  were  but 
slightly  enlisted  in  the  movement.  Several  denomina- 
tions formed  their  own  executive  councils. 

A  clear  idea  of  the  purpose  of  this  order  and  of  its 
general  membership  may  be  obtained  from  the  following 

'  '  'It  comprehends  the  essential  features  of  the  Brotherhood  of  St. 
Andrew,  but  is  interdenominational."  "Modern  Methods  in  Church 
Work,"   Mead,  166. 

8  "Manual  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip,"  Brotherhood 
Press. 

292 


INTERDENOMINATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

official  statements:  *' Object  and  Rules.  Section  1.  The 
object  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip  is  the 
spread  of  Christ's  Kingdom  among  men  and  boys  by 
all  appropriate  methods.  Section  2.  The  fundamentals 
of  the  Brotherhood  are  the  Rule  of  Prayer  and  Rule  of 
Service.  The  Rule  of  Prayer  is  to  pray  daily  for  the 
spread  of  Christ's  Kingdom  among  men  and  for  God's 
blessing  upon  the  labors  of  the  Brotherhood.  The  Rule 
of  Service  is  to  make  personal  efforts  to  bring  men  and 
boys  within  hearing  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  as  set 
forth  in  the  services  of  the  Church,  prayer-meeting,  and 
men's  Bible  classes.  Section  3.  The  Brotherhood,  rec- 
ognizing that  men  and  boys  have  fourfold  natures,  phys- 
ical, mental,  social,  and  religious,  urges  its  members  to 
be  concerned  for  the  development  of  the  whole  man,  and 
to  manifest  the  spirit  of  Christian  comradeship  in  all 
the  relations  of  life.  Membership.  Section  1.  Member- 
ship in  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip  shall 
consist  of  two  classes,  as  follows:  Section  2.  Chartered 
Brotherhood  Chapters.  Any  organization  of  men  and 
boys  in  a  congregation  or  mission  of  any  evangelical 
Church  having  subscribed  to  the  provisions  of  Article  II 
shall,  on  the  payment  of  five  dollars  and  having  the  ap- 
proval of  the  minister  or  officers  in  charge  of  the  Church 
or  mission,  be  entitled  to  enrollment  and  a  charter,  and 
so  to  become  a  Chapter  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew 
and  Philip,  and  as  such  to  obtain  representation  at 
conferences  and  conventions  of  the  Brotherhood.  Sec- 
tion 3.  Contributing  members:  (a)  Individuals  paying 
to  the  International  Council  five  (5)  dollars  annually 
shaU  be  termed  Annual  members,  (b)  Individuals  pay- 
ing to  the  International  Council  ten  (10)  dollars  an- 
nually shall  be  termed  Sustaining  members,  (c)  Indi- 
viduals paying  to  the  International  Council  one  hundred 
(100)  dollars  or  more  shall  be  termed  Honorary  mem- 
bers.   All  contributing  members  shall  subscribe  to  this 

293 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

constitution  and  be  elected  by;  the  International  Coun- 
cil.'^* 

The  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip  made  much 
of  Christian  unity.  *'In  the  federal  council  and  at  fed- 
eral conventions  the  representatives  of  the  chapters  in 
all  denominations  consider  how  all  may  more  efficiently 
work  together  as  one  body  in  Christ"^  The  badge 
adopted  was  a  five-pointed  star,  surrounded  by  the  let- 
ters of  the  brotherhood  name.  This  brotherhood  motto 
was  selected,  **They  that  be  wise  shall  shine  as  the 
brightness  of  the  firmament,  and  they  that  turn  many 
to  righteousness  as  the  stars  for  ever  and  ever.''^ 

While  this  fraternity  placed  first  emphasis  on  spir- 
itual work,  other  than  distinctively  spiritual  means  of 
service  were  recognized  as  being  legitimate  and  helpful.'' 
Free  reading-rooms,  gymnasiums,  boys'  clubs,  debating 
and  literary  societies,  lectures,  and  philanthropic  work 
were  undertaken  by  various  chapters,  which  at  the 
latest  report  numbered  well  into  the  second  thousand, 
and  which  was  said  to  represent  about  fifty  thousand 
men.  The  booklet  on  *  *  Men 's  Work  for  Men, ' '  published 
by  the  brotherhood,  contained  excellent  suggestions  and 
showed  a  good  spirit. 

The  most  noted  of  the  early  chapters  of  the  Brother- 
hood of  Andrew  and  Philip  was  probably  that  connected 
with  Bethany  Church,  Philadelphia,  and  the  history  of 
which  was  written  some  years  since  by  Dr.  J.  Wilbur 
Chapman:  **I  had  just  accepted  the  pastorate  of  this 
important  Church  and  was  standing  at  the  foot  of  the 
pulpit  steps  one  morning  after  I  had  preached  my 
sermon  when  an  aged  man  passed  along  and,  taking  me 

*  Constitution  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip. 

8  "Manual  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip,"  published 
with  other  literature  from  the  headquarters  at  Fifteenth  and  Race  Sts., 
Philadelphia. 

•  Daniel  12 :  3. 

'Cressey,   "The  Church  and  Young  Men,"  p.  120. 

294 


INTERDENOMINATIONAL  BROTHERHO"ODS 

by  the  hand,  said:  'Well,  sir,  I  am  very  much  afraid 
that  you  will  make  this  pastorate  a  failure.  I  certainly 
know  that  you  will  without  help.  "We  have  had  dis- 
tinguished men  here  as  pastors  of  this  Church,  and  you 
are  young,  and  I  tremble  for  you;  but  I  have  stopped 
to  say  to  you  that  I  am  going  to  help  you/  It  seemed 
almost  ridiculous,  and  I  wondered  what  this  old  man 
could  do  for  me.  Then  he  said,  *  I  have  covenanted  with 
two  other  men  to  pray  for  you  so  long  as  you  are  the 
pastor  of  this  Church,  and  we  have  determined  to  ask 
that  God  will  make  you  a  winner  of  souls.'  Then  I 
looked  about  the  great  church  with  eyes  filled  with 
tears,  and  knew  in  my  heart  that  God  was  going  to 
give  us  a  manifestation  of  His  presence  and  power  in 
that  work.  The  three  men  became  ten,  the  ten  grew 
to  twenty,  the  twenty  numbered  one  hundred,  and  the 
*  Brotherhood*  grew  until  at  last  it  came  to  be  true  that 
every  Sunday  morning  from  9.45  to  10.45  from  four 
to  six  hundred  men  met  for  prayer  and  conference. 
The  meetings  were  thrilling  in  their  interest.  Not  a 
service  was  held  without  conversions.  The  men  prayed 
for  God's  blessing  upon  me  as  their  pastor.  They  fre- 
quently accompanied  me  into  the  church.  They  some- 
times formed  a  great  choir  in  the  gallery  and  sang  with 
great  effect.  Again,  they  occupied  seats  in  different 
parts  of  the  house  and  watched  for  souls.  They  stood 
by  me  when  I  preached  on  the  streets.  They  went  with 
me  as  a  great  army  when  I  conducted  meetings  in  an- 
other part  of  the  city.  They  still  stand  close  to  me  in 
their  affections.  When  I  was  called  away  from  the 
church,  so  important  was  the  service  deemed  to  be  that 
Hon.  John  Wanamaker,  the  senior  elder  of  the  Church 
and  the  honored  superintendent  of  the  Bethany  Sunday 
School,  decided  to  give  a  portion  of  his  valuable  time 
to  the  *  brotherhood'  work.  He  now  meets  with  the  men 
every  Sunday  morning.    He  has  aided  them  in  erecting 

295 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

a  clubhouse  to  which  they  have  free  access,  and  he  Inm- 
self  has  publicly  said  that  there  is  no  greater  work  to 
be  accomplished  to-day  by  the  ministers  and  Church 
officers  than  the  work  in  the  interests  of  men.  To  one 
seeking  the  best  organization  for  such  work  I  would 
say,  Study  the  principles  of  this  'Brotherhood  of  An- 
drew and  Philip/  "« 

The  Brotherhood  of  the  Red  Diamond  was  organized 
in  1898,  as  an  interdenominational  society  for  boys  of 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  years.^  Several  other  societies 
of  this  kind  have  been  formed  in  the  Churches :  Knights 
of  King  Arthur,  of  the  Round  Table,  of  the  Holy  Grail, 
and  like  names  being  used  by  these  societies  of  men-to-be. 

An  organization  which  has  made  a  widely-extended 
effort  to  form  and  to  develop  into  higher  usefulness 
young  men's  Bible  classes  is  called  the  Baraca  Union. 
This  interdenominational  men's  work  was  instituted  by 
a  Christian  layman  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  Mr.  Marshall  A. 
Hudson.  Charles  G.  Trumbull  in  ''The  Man  Who 
Wants  a  Million"  relates  a  number  of  incidents  in  the 
life  of  Mr.  Hudson  which  are  most  interesting.  The  first 
narrative  is  that  of  a  call  to  personal  responsibility  for 
another  life.  "A  young  man  of  thirty-three,"  says  Mr. 
Trumbull,  "was  addressing  his  first  public  meeting  on 
the  subject  of  religion.  He  had  been  just  four  weeks 
a  Christian.  Because  he  was  well  known  commercially, 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  hall  where  he 
was  to  speak  was  crowded  with  merchants  and  clerks. 
Telling  with  enthusiasm  of  his  new-found  Savior,  the 
young  convert  said  that  Christian  people  ought  to  speak 
of  Christ  to  others  oftener  than  they  do,  and  seek  to 
win  men  individually  to  Christ.  'If  you  know  a  man 
whom  God  tells  you  to  speak  to,  and  to  whom  you  feel 
you  can't  go  yourself,'  said  he,  'send  some  one  else  after 

•  "Fishing  for  Men,"  J.  W.  Chapman,  D.  D.,  p.  15,  et  seq. 
"  "World  Almanac  and  Encyclopedia." 

296 


INTERDENOMINATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

him.  I  did  that  very  thing  last  week/  This  was  in 
Syracuse.  In  the  audience  sat  George  G.  Truair,  then 
and  for  many  years  afterward  editor  of  the  Syracuse 
Evening  Journal.  As  the  speaker  reached  this  point, 
Mr.  Truair  rose  suddenly  to  his  feet  and  called  out: 
*Mr.  Hudson,  you  are  young  in  the  Christian  life  yet, 
and  I  want  to  ask  you  a  question.  Did  the  man  you 
sent  to  the  other  man,  to  whom  God  had  told  you  to 
go  and  speak,  bring  him  to  Christ?'  *No;  he  was  not 
ready,'  was  the  answer.  *He  never  will  be  ready,'  came 
the  quick  retort  from  the  man  on  the  floor,  'and  he 
never  will  be  a  Christian  until  you  go  yourself  and  ask 
him  to  come.  If  God  had  wanted  some  one  else  to  speak 
to  that  man,  God  would  have  spoken  to  some  one  else 
instead  of  to  you.  Now,'  continued  the  editor,  turning 
and  facing  the  audience  of  men,  attentive  and  curious 
at  the  unexpected  turn  that  things  had  taken,  *  how  many 
of  you  will  promise  to  pray  for  Mr.  Hudson  at  ten 
o'clock  to-morrow  morning  while  he  goes  himself  and 
wins  that  man  to  Christ  ? '  An  army  of  men  raised  their 
hands,  and  the  young  convert  was  squarely  in  for  it. 
Ten  o'clock  the  next  morning  came  all  too  soon.  Ho 
passed  and  repassed  the  door  of  the  business  building 
where  his  friend  worked  before  he  could  screw  up 
courage  enough  to  enter.  Then  he  marched  in.  His 
man,  a  bookbinder  working  over  a  ledger  in  the  far 
corner  of  the  room,  had  evidently  seen  him  coming,  for 
he  greeted  the  visitor  by  name  as  he  came  along-side, 
without  looking  up  from  his  work.  *I  've  come  on  a 
queer  errand,'  said  Hudson,  awkwardly.  'I  have  been 
a  Christian,  you  know,  only  a  few  weeks;  it  is  a  hard 
thing  for  me  to  come  and  talk  with  you  about  this,  but 
.it  means  so  much  to  me  that  I  want  to  know  if  you 
will  not  make  the  decision  this  morning  and  give  your 
heart  to  Christ.'  He  stopped.  There  was  no  answer; 
the  man  went  on  at  his  work,  still  without  looking  up. 

297 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  young  soul-winner  waited,  no  answer.  Then  he 
laid  his  hand  upon  the  shoulder  of  the  man  he  had 
come  to  win,  and  began  again,  *You  and  I  have  been 
old  friends  for  so  long  that  I  believe  I  can  help  you 
and  you  can  help  me  in  the  Christian  life,  and  I  want 
you  to  say  to  me  that  you  will  make  the  decision.' 
Still  no  reply;  but  now,  as  Hudson  waited,  with  his 
hand  on  his  friend's  arm,  he  bore  down  hard  and  lov- 
ingly on  that  arm.  Then  he  saw,  on  the  ledger  that 
was  before  him,  big  tear-drops  falling;  and  he  knew 
that  ne  had  his  man.  After  a  moment  more  the  book- 
binder's hand  was  thrust  out  and  gripped  his  caller's, 
as  he  said,  ^Hudson,  there  's  my  hand  on  it.  I  'm  a 
Christian  from  this  time  on.'  " 

The  result  of  this  experience  determined  the  young 
convert  to  win  others  to  the  Christian  life,  and  among 
those  whom  he  first  gained  was  a  profane  cartman,  with 
whom  he  knelt  behind  a  crockery  crate  and  prayed  God 
to  put  ** prayer  instead  of  swear"  into  the  cartman 's 
mouth. 

The  second  important  narrative  published  with  refer- 
erence  to  Mr.  Hudson  by  his  biographer  concerns  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Baracas  and  Mr.  Hudson's  business 
changes,  made  in  order  to  the  furtherance  of  his  plans 
of  Christian  work.  *'At  thirty-one  Mr.  Hudson  had 
opened  his  first  store,  after  seventeen  years  of  learning 
the  business  in  the  largest  crockery  store  in  Syracuse. 
He  had  been  offered  a  partnership  in  the  established 
business,  but  he  preferred  to  branch  out  for  himself. 
In  three  years'  time,  the  first  year  after  his  conversion, 
he  was  carrying  a  stock  of  his  own  worth  $16,000.  He 
pushed  steadily  ahead,  and  opened  another  store,  in 
Cortland;  tlien  another,  in  Auburn.  All  three  pros- 
pered, and  they  made  an  increasing  tax  upon  his  time 
and  strength.  The  vow  was  made  that  when  his  capital 
reached  a  certain  point,  all  above  that  amount  would 

298 


INTERDENOMINATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

be  spent  directly  for  God.    The  mark  was  reached,  and 
a  missionary  in  India  was  supported. 

*'His  touch  with  men,  and  his  succesf;  in  leading 
men  to  Christ,  made  Mr.  Hudson  long  to  do  something 
to  bring  more  men  into  vital  relation  with  Jesus  Christ 
and  into  an  intimate  knowledge  and  systematic  study 
of  the  Bible.  He  looked  around  him  to  see  whether  the 
Sunday  school  was  meeting  this  need.  His  city  num- 
bered one  hundred  thousand  people;  there  was  not  in 
it,  in  a  single  Sunday  school,  a  men's  Bible  class  num- 
bering as  many  as  ten  members.  Yet  he  was  told  that 
there  were  in  that  city  sixteen  thousand  young  men  of 
whom  not  more  than  five  per  cent  went  to  Church,  and 
still  less  to  Sunday  school.  His  own  Sunday  school  had 
no  men's  class,  and  no  men  in  sight  for  one.  Some- 
thing was  wrong.  But  that  something  could  be  set  right. 
Business  cares,  with  three  flourishing  stores,  were  press- 
ing, so  others  were  solicited  to  take  up  the  Bible-class 
work.  That  move  failed,  just  as  it  had  failed  with  his 
first  convert,  the  bookbinder.  Hudson  was  thrown  back 
on  the  necessity  of  doing  something  himself.  The  home 
church  was  being  decorated  just  then,  and  the  entire 
Sunday  school  was  obliged  to  meet  as  one  class  in  a 
rear  room.  Hudson  noticed  a  few  young  men  waiting 
outside  to  walk  home,  after  school,  with  their  girls.  He 
did  not  want  to  ask  them  to  join  the  rest  of  the  school 
in  the  single  room  available,  so  he  invited  them  to  crawl 
in  under  the  rafters  of  the  partially  finished  church 
and  find  a  place  for  the  Bible  class  that  he  asked  them 
to  form  with  him.  They  were  ready  for  a  novelty  like 
that,  and  did  so,  sitting  on  the  back  of  a  seat,  while 
their  teacher  faced  them  standing  on  a  front  seat. 
There  under  the  scaffolding,  amid  dirt  and  plaster,  he 
taught  his  first  men's  class,  asking  for  a  prayer  in  order 
to  secure  quiet,  and  then  telling  and  applying  the  les- 
son story  in  simple  language. 

299 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

*'They  stayed  by  their  teacher,  these  young  fellows, 
and  for  several  Sundays  met  *  roosting,'  as  they  said, 
on  the  backs  of  the  pews.  But  business  was  so  pressing 
that  he  did  not  see  how  he  could  organize  and  push  the 
class  as  it  deserved.  Yet  the  opportunities  for  reaching 
men  kept  opening  before  him,  and  the  Church's  neglect 
was  so  painfully  apparent  that  he  could  not  endure  it, 
and  kept  looking  for  a  man  to  lead  and  organize  his 
class.  What  an  outlook  for  a  live  business  man!  Had 
these  been  sixteen  thousand  prospective  customers  in- 
stead of  sixteen  thousand  men  to  reach  for  Christ,  he 
frankly  admitted  that  not  a  stone  would  have  been  left 
unturned  to  get  them.  He  would  at  once  have  planned 
a  campaign  to  bring  them  to  his  store.  As  for  these 
sixteen  thousand  prospective  Church  members,  no  one 
but  the  devil  would  be  in  competition  with  him  to  se- 
cure them  for  his  Church  and  Bible  class.  Yet  the  tug 
of  business  would  not  let  up ;  it  was  all  the  other  way. 
*It  takes  prayer  and  sacrifice  for  a  business  man  to  give 
himself  to  the  Lord's  work,'  says  Mr.  Hudson  to-day, 
as  he  reviews  the  old  struggle;  *a  man  would  always 
rather  give  his  money,  which  often  is  no  sacrifice,  than 
to  give  himself.  But  God  wants  men,  not  merely  their 
money,  in  His  work.  If  He  gets  the  men.  He  will  get 
their  money  too.  Happy  is  the  man  who  surrenders 
when  God  calls.'  He  finally  gave  in  and  set  himself  to 
finding  out  the  real  needs  of  the  eighteen  young  men 
whom  he  had  gathered  together.  He  threw  the  respon- 
sibility for  all  the  ac.tivities  of  the  class  upon  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class.     They  organized  thoroughly. 

*  *  In  six  months  the  crockery  merchant 's  class  of  eight- 
een had  grown  to  one  hundred  and  eight.  It  was  taking 
a  lot  of  his  time — more  than  he  ever  intended.  Finally 
he  said  to  himself  that  he  believed  he  would  actually 
have  to  let  one  of  his  stores  go — or  his  class,  and  he 
could  n  't  drop  that.    So  he  closed  out  a  store,  and,  said 

300 


INTERDENOMINATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

lie,  'I  'm  doing  a  great  thing  for  the  Lord.'  With  only- 
two  stores  to  manage,  affairs  in  the  class  took  a  boom, 
and  the  whole  Church  was  feeling  the  result.  The  gain 
was  so  marked  that  Mr.  Hudson  decided  that  what 
worked  well  once  would  work  well  twice,  and  he  closed 
out  another  of  his  stores,  deciding  that,  after  all,  one 
flourishing  store  was  all  that  he  needed,  if  thereby  he 
could  have  more  time  for  the  Lord's  work.  The  results 
justified  the  decision. 

**  There  were  two  hundred  and  seventy  members  in 
his  Church  when  Mr.  Hudson  gathered  his  young  men 
together  under  the  rafters  of  the  half-finished  building 
that  eventful  Sunday  noon.  In  the  seventeen  years 
that  have  passed,  three  hundred  and  fifty-two  men  have 
been  won  to  Christ  in  that  class  alone,  and  through  that 
class  and  the  Philathea,  the  young  women's  class,  more 
than  five  hundred  have  been  added  to  the  membership. 
The  influence  of  the  work  spread,  of  course,  to  the  other 
Churches  in  Syracuse  and  beyond,  and  twelve  years  ago 
the  ninety  classes  that  flourished  in  New  York  State 
and  thereabouts  got  together  and  talked  about  forming 
a  State  organization.  *No,'  said  Hudson;  'let  us  have 
no  new  State  organizations  to  cumber  the  already  ex- 
isting Sunday  school  and  Church  machinery;  but  if 
you  '11  make  it  a  National  organization,  I  '11  consent 
to  go  in  for  it  with  you. '  This  was  done,  and  Mr.  Hud- 
son, of  course,  was  made  the  National  president.  Then 
the  pressure  of  the  Bible-class  work  grew  so  heavy  that 
he  came  home  to  his  wife  one  day  and  said,  *  It  's  a  ques- 
tion with  me  whether  I  can  keep  my  store  going  any 
longer.'  'Well,'  answered  his  wife,  *I  knew  you  'd  come 
to  it.  *You  see,'  says  Mr.  Hudson,  as  he  tells  of  it 
smilingly  to-day,  *the  thing  had  become  a  larger  busi- 
ness than  my  own  business.'  That  's  a  way  the  King's 
business  has.  *I  '11  throw  up  my  business,'  said  the 
merchant,  *  and  get  a  million  men. '    So  in  1905  his  third 

301 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

and  last  store  went;  and  the  successful  crockery  mer- 
chant pledged  himself  and  his  personal  fortune  to  the 
winning  of  men  to  the  Savior  and  to  the  study  of  the 
Bible  in  and  through  the  Sunday  school." 

The  first  Baraca  Class  was  organized  October  10, 
1890,  the  platform  adopted  being,  ''Young  men  at  work 
for  young  men,  all  standing  by  the  Bible  and  the  Bible 
school."  While  it  is  doubtless  true  that  Mr.  Hudson's 
idea  was  by  no  means  original,  yet  a  new  spiritual  in- 
fluence certainly  attended  its  operation.  Similar  classes 
existed  in  other  Churches,  but  many  new  ones  began 
to  be  formed.  In  June,  1898,  representatives  from  va- 
rious classes  met  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  and  organized  The 
Baraca  Union  of  America,  and  some  time  since  it  was 
estimated  that  the  Baraca  Classes  in  the  United  States, 
England,  and  Canada,  together  with  the  Philathea 
women's  classes,  contained  more  than  three  hundred 
thousand  members  who  were  divided  among  many  de- 
nominations.^^ A  paper  called  The  Baraca  represents 
the  interests  of  the  movement.  '*The  Baraca  Supply 
Company"  handles  the  goods  required  by  the  classes; 
badges,  literature,  blank  forms,  games  for  socials,  and 
other  articles.  Headquarters  were  opened  at  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.  Colors  chosen  for  the  society  were  blue  and  white. 
The  badge  adopted  was  a  large  initial  **B"  containing 
the  letters  *'R"  and  *'C"  in  the  upper  loop,  and  the 
letter  ''A''  below. 

The  Baraca  Union  was  not  formed  as  in  the  strictest 
sense  a  church  brotherhood,  yet  in  churches  which  had 
no  brotherhood  the  Baraca  Class  at  once  undertook  to 
supply  many  of  the  offices  of  a  complete  fraternity.  A 
number  of  classes  instituted  reading-room,  gymnasium, 
baseball  teams,  mandolin  clubs,  cycle  clubs,  and  such 
social  features  as  local  conditions  suggested.  The  three 
emphatic   words  impressed  upon   the   members  were: 

10  "'How'  Book,"  p.  35,  vide  infra. 

302 


INTERDENOMINATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

Sympathy,  Prayer,  and  Consecration.  An  interesting 
feature  was  the  use  of  a  secret  service  pledge  intended 
to  deepen  the  spiritual  life  of  the  membership.  The 
following  blank  was  filled  out  by  the  person  taking  this 
step: 

Pledge.— ''My  Secret  Service  (Matt.  ^'.Q\  John  14: 
13,  14).  1.  I  pledge  to  pray  for  the  unconverted  mem- 
bers of  our  Bible  class  every  day  at  noon,  or  as  soon 
thereafter  as  I  remember  this  pledge.  2.  I  pledge  to 
make  a  list  of  those  to  whom  I  will  speak,  and  to  work 
and  pray  for  them.  3.  I  will  meet  the  secret  service 
members  once  a  month  and  pray  aloud  with  them,  and 

do  all  in  my  power  to  help  bring  members  to 

Christ  within  the  next  six  months.    Signed 

Dated '' 

Good  results  attended  the  use  of  this  agreement,^ ^ 
and  the  leaders  have  particularly  emphasized  it,  be- 
lieving that  the  setting  of  a  particular  hour  when  every 
Christian  class  member  should  pray  for  some  one  not  a 
Christian,  raises  the  standard  of  Christian  experience 
and  consecration. 

One  Sunday  a  month,  usually  the  first,  was  called 
** Rally  Day,"  and  effort  was  made  by  personal  work 
and  postal  cards  to  have  every  member  present.  On 
such  days  special  features  were  often  introduced,  such 
as  an  address  by  some  qualified  speaker.  The  constant 
effort  was  to  enlarge  the  circle  over  which  the  union 
had  a  saving  influence.  The  result  of  the  business  sys- 
tem and  strenuous  spirit  behind  these  plans  was  seen 
in  the  growth  attained.  Spiritual  ends  were  also  com- 
passed. From  one  class  over  a  score  were  baptized  in 
a  single  year.  In  two  years  in  a  large  cliurch  fifty-two 
were  received  from  the  Baraca  Class  into  church  mem- 
bership.    A  village  pastor  reported:  **When  the  class 

"The    "'How'   Book,"   M.   A.   Hudson,   describes  tbe   adoption  and 
success  of  the    "Secret  Service,"   p.   92,   also  ff. 

303 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

was  organized  the  male  constituency  of  our  Church 
numbered  thirty-eight.  Nine  of  these  were  non-resi- 
dents, leaving  the  resident  male  membership  twenty- 
nine.  Since  that  date  thirty-two  male  members  have 
been  received  into  our  membership  and  twenty-four  of 
this  number  were  first  members  of  the  Baraca  Class. 
The  increase  has  been  over  one  hundred  per  cent.  "We 
do  not  claim  that  the  Baraca  Class  is  entitled  to  the 
credit  of  having  brought  these  men  into  the  Kingdom 
and  into  the  Church,  but  we  are  sure  that  the  class 
most  nobly  supported  the  pastor  and  the  Church  in 
reaching  out  after  men,  and  that  its  influence  and  power 
have  been  great." 

The  indirect  influence  which  the  faithful  story  of  the 
Bible  in  such  classes  has  exerted  in  the  direction  of  tem- 
perance, purity,  and  Christian  citizenship  it  is  impos- 
sible to  estimate,  but  it  can  not  have  been  small.  The 
attachment  incidentally  formed  for  all  Christian  un- 
dertakings and  for  the  church  and  Sunday  school  often 
proved  to  be  a  character-building  force.  From  the  first, 
determination  characterized  the  effort  of  the  Baracas  to 
get  and  to  keep  men.  *' Hustlers'  Committees"  were  em- 
ployed in  this  undertaking.  A  good  sample  of  the  en- 
thusiasm and  persistence  sometimes  shown  in  this  work 
was  presented  in  the  case  of  a  Baraca  Bible  Class  at 
Raleigh,  N.  C,  described  by  Mr.  Hudson  in  writing  on 
*'How  to  Reach  Men."^^  i*rjr^Q  chairman  of  the  hus- 
tlers' committee  (by  invitation  of  the  president  of  the 
class)  arose  and,  coming  before  the  class,  said  he  wished 
to  give  a  report  of  the  hustlers'  committee  for  the  past 
week.  He  said:  *Mr.  George  Jones  went  to  work  Mon- 
day morning  for  the  Raleigh  Hardware  Company.  Be- 
ing a  stranger  in  town,  our  hustlers  began  to  hustle 
for  him  the  first  day.    Who  saw  Mr.  Jones  on  Monday?' 

"Op.  cit.,  Hudson,  pp.  41-43. 

304 


INTERDENOMINATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

A  young  man  arose  and  said,  'I  called  on  Mr.  Jones 
Monday,  presenting  our  class  card  of  invitation,  for 
which  he  thanked  me.  *  *  Tuesday  ? '  Another  man  arose 
and  said,  *I  called  on  him  Tuesday,  presented  my  card, 
and  he  said  he  was  much  obliged.'  *  Wednesday?'  *I 
called  on  Mr.  Jones  "Wednesday.  He  said  that  two 
other  men  had  called  upon  him  this  week,  and  he  thought 
we  were  a  live  class.'  *  Thursday?'  *I  called  upon  Mr. 
Jones  Thursday.  He  said  three  men  had  called  on  him 
this  week  and  he  thought  we  must  be  a  great  class  and 
he  would  be  here  to-day.'  *  Friday?'  *Mr.  Jones  was 
very  much  surprised  when  I  called  on  him  on  Friday, 
and  said  he  would  certainly  be  here  to-day,  and  he  was 
-very  much  pleased  at  the  number  of  invitations  he  had 
received.'  *  Saturday?'  *I  called  Saturday,  and  Mr. 
Jones  said  that  he  would  either  have  to  come  to  this 
class  on  Sunday  or  move  out  of  town.'  *Well,  who  went 
to  see  Mr.  Jones  to-day?'  *I  called  upon  Mr.  Jones 
this  morning  and  found  him  in  bed,  but  I  waited  until 
he  had  his  breakfast  and  dressed,  and  here  he  is,'  said  a 
man,  as  he  reached  down  and  lifted  the  stranger  to  his 
feet.  This  is  only  an  example  of  what  has  been  done 
and  is  being  done  in  hundreds  of  Bible  classes  for  men 
and  women  throughout  the  land.  It  is  related  that  one 
man  was  called  upon  fifty-six  times  and  that  on  the 
fifty-seventh  time  he  accepted  the  invitation,  came  to 
the  class  and  joined  it,  and  to-day;  is  one  of  the  pillars 
of  the  Church." 

After  the  days  of  the  once  famous  AUing  Class^^  or- 
ganized in  1884  in  the  Central  Presbyterian  Church, 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  which  grew  into  a  veritable  regi- 
ment of  Bible  school  men,  the  increase  and  development 
of  the  adult  organized  Bible  class  for  men  was  constant. 
Until  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  men 

^  Reported  at  length  in  M^ad,  op.  cit.,  p.  167  flf. 

20  305 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

were  not  usually  found  in  large  numbers  in  Sunday 
schools.  The  Ailing  Class  and  other  similar  institutions 
which  sprang  up  at  about  the  same  time,  and  whose  work 
was  supplemented  and  more  widely  and  aggressively 
propagated  by  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 
and  by  the  Baraca  Union,  brought  about  a  very  differ- 
ent state  of  affairs  with  reference  to  the  relation  between 
men  and  the  Bible.  Soon  few  cities  were  without  great 
association  Bible  classes  and  institutes,  and  few  colleges 
lacked  hosts  of  young  men  gathered  into  groups  for  the 
study  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  Sunday  schools 
abounded  with  men's  classes,  in  many  instances  running 
up  into  the  hundreds  in  their  memberships,  and  often 
so  diversified  in  their  activities  as  to  perform  all  the 
functions  of  the  usual  Church  brotherhoods.  This  work 
is  regarded  by  many  as  constituting  one  of  the  most 
encouraging  symptoms  of  modern  Christian  life,  and 
especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  more  recent  tend- 
ency seems  to  be  away  from  the  mere  presentation  of 
Sunday  lectures  upon  themes  of  social  and  political  in- 
terest, and  in  the  direction  of  intelligent  and  purposive 
examination  of  the  Christian  literature  and  teaching. 
In  most  Protestant  Churches,  especially  in  the  larger 
and  more  highly-organized  bodies,  it  is  felt  that  both 
the  brotherhood  and  the  men's  Bible  classes  are  needed, 
and  that  they  co-operate  with  mutual  profit. 

The  account  just  given  re-emphasizes  what  is  so  often 
impressed  upon  the  mind  by  the  study  of  Christian  in- 
stitutions, that  they  are  built  and  maintained  by  self- 
denial.  Since  the  influence  of  Jesus  is  ever  striving  in 
the  world  men  will  continue  to  appear  who  will  give 
themselves  and  their  all  to  the  interests  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Christ. 

"The  potent  call 
Doubtless  shall  cheat  full  oft  the  heart's  desire.'* 

306 


INTERDENOMINATIONAL  BROTHERHOODS 

Moreover,  when  a  useful  service  is  unselfishly  under- 
taken it  will  always  find  helpers,  for  as  the  Bishop  of 
Ripon  has  said,  *' Wherever  a  man  in  whom  the  true 
spirit  dwells  arises  to  work  among  the  sons  of  men, 
brothers  like  minded  will  gather  round  his  standard,  and 
the  work  of  such  men  can  never  be  in  vain." 


307 


XVIII 

RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

METHODIST  AND  PRESBYTERIAN 

It  has  been  seen  that  Methodism  grew  out  of  the  Holy 
Club  at  Oxford,  that  its  founder  received  personal 
benefit  from  the  men^s  society  in  Aldersgate  Street,  and 
that  he  greatly  aided  the  work  of  the  Society  for  the 
Reformation  of  Manners  and  other  similar  organiza- 
tions of  London.  His  first  open-air  sermon  was  pre- 
ceded by  expounding  the  Scriptures  to  the  little  society 
at  Bristol,  whither  he  had  followed  George  Whitefield. 
From  the  first  Methodism  was  both  democratic  and 
brotherly  in  spirit,  and  it  gradually  absorbed  what  re- 
mained of  the  Horneck- Woodward  societies,  and  which 
had  for  decades  been  the  means  of  keeping  from  entire 
extinction  the  spark  of  vital  piety/ 

Among  the  earliest  Methodist  brotherhoods,  regard- 
ing the  matter  from  a  denominational  standpoint,  were 
the  societies  and  classes  formed  among  the  Methodist 
men  in  the  ranks  of  the  British  army  and  navy.  Con- 
verts made  in  the  chapels  and  out-door  meetings  of 
Great  Britain,  and  who  enlisted  or  were  pressed  into 
military  service,  found  out  each  other  as  being  brother 
Methodists,  and  formed  themselves  into  groups  which 
transcended  differences  of  rank,  and  which  not  only  re- 
sulted in  spiritual  encouragement  and  in  mutual  help- 
fulness, but  which  produced  important  permanent  ef- 

**"rhe  Life  of  the  Rev.  John  Wesley,"  Richard  Watson,  pp,  64  and 
65,  Nota.  Watson  particularizes  the  societies  in  London,  Bristol,  and 
St.  Ives,  Cornwall,  as  being  thus  absorbed  by  Methodism. 

308 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

fects  in  the  extension  of  Methodist  societies  and  insti- 
tutions into  parts  of  the  world  in  which  they  were  un- 
known. 

A  very  delightful  book  by  a  noted  British  chaplain 
contains  a  full  account  of  the  Methodist  societies  among 
military  men  and  sailors.^  It  begins  with  Mr.  Wesley's 
statement,  **  Loyalty  is  with  me  an  essential  branch 
of  religion/'  and  with  illustrations  of  the  interest  taken 
in  the  defenders  of  the  empire  by  the  Methodist  leader. 
John  Wesley  exalted  patriotism.  In  1756,  when  Eng- 
land was  threatened  with  invasion,  he  offered  to  raise 
Methodist  volunteers  in  case  they  should  be  needed. 
He  witnessed  with  pleasure  military  exercises,  and  he 
frequently,  and  evidently  with  much  acceptability, 
preached  to  men  in  uniform.  With  all  his  admiration 
and  fondness  for  soldiers,  the  great  reformer  was  not 
blind  to  their  weaknesses  and  sins,  as  witness  ''^A  Fur- 
ther Appeal  to  Men  of  Reason  and  Religion,"*  Wes- 
ley's tract  '* Advice  to  a  Soldier,"  was  scattered  broad- 
cast, and  one  reason  for  his  zeal  with  respect  to  out- 
door preaching  was  that  this  was  at  the  time  about  the 
only  way  soldiers  could  be  reached.* 

The  concern  for  the  moral  state  of  soldiers  and 
sailors  shown  by  their  distinguished  organizer  was  com- 
municated to  the  body  of  Methodist  preachers  and  so- 
cieties. In  1779  George  Cussons  and  John  Davies  re- 
solved to  raise  a  fund  to  supply  soldiers  with  pocket 
Bibles,  *'The  first  parcel  of  Bibles  was  sent  out  from 
the  vestry  of  Wesley's  West  Street  Chapel,  and  the  first 
sermon  in  behalf  of  the  society  was  preached  in  that 
chapel  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Collins.    Thus  arose  the  'Naval 

'"Soldiers  and  Preachers,  Too,"  Owen  Spencer  Watkins.  This 
modest  preacher-soldier  has  had  wide  experience  at  Kandia,  Khar- 
toum, Ladysmith,  and  elsewhere.  He  was  four  times  mentioned  in  de- 
spatches for  gallantry  in  service,  and  holds  Egyptian  and  Queen's  medals. 

^  Watkins,  op.  cit.,  p.  9. 

♦  Ibid,  p.   11. 

309 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

and  Military  Bible  Society' — ^twenty-five  years  before 
the  founding  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
It  is  the  oldest  society  for  the  distribution  of  God's 
Word  in  existence,  and  though  no  longer  associated  with 
Methodism,  is  still  in  active  operation."^ 

The  effect  upon  the  troops  of  the  various  activities 
of  the  Methodists,  both  those  in  their  behalf  and  those 
of  the  general  religious  movement,  was  marked.  Sol- 
diers often  defended  Mr.  Wesley  when  he  was  attacked 
by  mobs.  At  Westminster  as  early  as  1738  he  found 
a  Methodist  class  chiefly  composed  of  soldiers.  At  Wa- 
terford,  Ireland,  he  met  a  society  made  up  principally 
of  members  of  a  Highland  regiment.  At  Limerick  sixty 
were  banded  in  one  class.  Dublin,  Berwick,  Kinsale, 
Chatham,  Manchester,  Leicester,  and  Canterbury  were 
among  the  places  which  had  these  soldiers'  classes.  In 
the  stirring  days  which  followed  the  gathering  of  these 
men  into  religious  bodies  they  had  abundant  opportu- 
nity to  show  that  men  of  God  possess  courage,  and  they 
so  behaved  that  Mr.  Wesley  in  a  letter  to  Alderman 
Ridley  was  able  to  confidently  challenge  comparison  of 
such  soldiers  with  others.  ''Let  us  judge  by  matter 
of  fact.  Let  either  friends  or  enemies  speak.  Did  those 
who  feared  God  behave  as  cowards  at  Fontenoy?"'^ 
Ten  years  later  a  colonel  with  whom  he  dined  said  to 
Wesley,  **No  men  fight  like  those  who  fear  God;  I  had 
rather  command  five  hundred  such  than  any  regiment 
in  his  majesty's  army."^ 

It  was  part  of  the  early  persecution  of  Methodists 
that  both  laymen  and  preachers  were  sometimes 
''pressed"  for  military  or  naval  service  in  defiance  of 
all  law,  and  at  seasons  when  the  act  was  greatest  cru- 

^ Wesley's  Works,  VI,  374-377.  The  index  of  these  volumes  contains 
14  citations  to  Mr.  Wesley's  references  to  soldiers,  abundantly  sustain- 
ing the  facts  stated  by  Lieut.-Col.  Watkins. 

"Wesley's  Journal,  Works,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  354. 

'Ibid,  p.  395. 

310 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

elty.  Thomas  Beard,  a  Yorkshire  preacher,  was  thus 
arrested  and  forced  to  serve,  and  was  also  compelled  to 
endure  such  hardships  that  he  became  one  of  the  earliest 
of  Methodist  martyrs.  The  noted  John  Nelson  was 
** pressed''  into  the  war  with  France  under  the  law 
seizing  those  who  ''had  no  lawful  calling  or  sufficient 
maintenance."  Yet  Nelson  was  a  mason,  supporting 
himself  by  his  trade  while  he  preached  for  love.  Bail 
was  refused  him;  he  was  cast  into  a  prison,  and  later 
was  so  harshly  treated  in  marches  and  service  that  the 
roughest  soldiery  revolted  and  even  dared  to  rebuke 
the  commanding  officer.  The  cruelty  continued  and  in- 
creased, however,  which  resulted  in  creating  more  sym- 
pathy and  a  better  hearing  for  the  sermons  which  at  all 
hazards  and  despite  threats  and  pains  Nelson  preached. 
To  such  preachers  soldiers  drew,  and  as  many  of  these 
men  entered  the  service  or  were  developed  within  it, 
classes  of  soldiers  and  sailors  sprang  up  wherever 
branches  of  the  army  were  found.  Common  faith,  labor, 
and  persecutions  made  brothers  of  these  men.  They 
called  each  other  such.  *'We  lost  one  brother  of  Gra- 
ham's regimdnt,  and  two  of  ours."  *'The  Lord  gave 
us  all  on  that  day  an  extraordinary  courage,  and  a 
word  to  speak  to  our  comrades  as  we  advanced  toward 
the  enemy,  to  tell  them  how  happy  they  were  that  had 
made  their  peace  with  God.  We  likewise  spoke  to  one 
another  while  the  cannon  were  firing,  and  we  could  all 
rely  on  God  and  resign  ourselves  to  His  will."  *'A 
few  of  us  meet  here  twice  a  day ;  and,  thanks  be  to  God, 
His  grace  is  still  sufficient  for  us!  We  desire  all  our 
brethren  to  praise  God  on  our  behalf."  ''We  left  our 
brother,  Mark  Bend,^  in  the  field;  whether  he  be  alive 
or  dead,  we  can  not  tell;  but  the  last  of  our  brothers 
that  spoke  to  him,  after  he  was  wounded,  found  him 

8 Or  Bond,  Vide  "Soldiers  and  Preachers,  Too,"  pp.  35,  39,  and  46. 

311 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

quite  resigned  to  the  will  of  God."^  John  Haime,  a 
trooper  of  the  Queen's  Dragoons,  was  the  leader  of  the 
Methodists  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  wherever  the  army; 
went  he  was  surrounded  by  men  who  eagerly  drank  in 
his  message,  and  who  formed  a  brotherhood  of  three 
hundred  ''members  of  Society,"  and  whose  services 
often  attracted  a  thousand  men.  In  the  winter  quar- 
ters at  Ghent  rooms  were  hired  which  were  headquarters 
for  this  organization  of  Christian  soldiers.  "When  the 
army  went  back  to  England  it  carried  with  it  so  many; 
Methodist  converts  that  the  ranks  of  the  Wesleyan  min- 
istry were  greatly  recruited  by  ex-soldiers  who  felt 
called  to  preach  the  gospel.  In  **The  Lives  of  Early 
Methodist  Preachers '*  over  a  fourth  of  the  names  are 
of  men  who  had  seen  service  in  army  or  navy. 

At  Gibraltar  a  Methodist  society,  or  brotherhood, 
existed  among  the  soldiers  as  early  as  1769,  **  comprising 
thirty-two  members,  all  meeting  regularly  in  class. ''^** 
Lord  Cornwallis,  June  9th  of  the  above  year,  issued  a 
** Garrison  Order"  for  their  protection  from  molestation. 
Later,  under  other  commanders,  through  much  persecu- 
tion, including  imprisonment  and  lashings,  a  permanent 
church  was  founded  at  the  fortress,  and  converts  made 
there  carried  gospel  preaching  to  many  quarters  of  the 
earth  and  into  all  the  wars  in  which  British  arms  en- 
gaged. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  in  the  old  *' Gentle- 
man's Magazine"  a  naval  officer,  declaring  that  at  sea 
it  was  impossible  to  get  efficient  work  out  of  men  with- 
out the  use  of  profanity,  said:  "I  never  knew  but  one 
exception,  and  that  was  extraordinary.  I  declare,  be- 
lieve me  it  is  true,  there  was  a  set  of  fellows  called 

» Extracts  from  letters  from  Sampson  Staniforth,  a  young  infantry- 
man in  Flanders  during  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  Wesley's 
Journal,  Works,  III,  pp.  383  &  4.  "Bond's  last  words  were  an  exhorta- 
tion to  his  comrade  to  stand  fast  in  the  Lord."     Watkins,  op,  cit.,  p.  47. 

"Watkins,  op.  cit.,  p.  51. 

312 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

Methodists  on  board  the  Victory,  Lord  Nelson's  ship, 
and  these  men  never  wanted  swearing  at.  The  dogs 
were  the  best  seamen  on  board.  Every  man  knew  his 
duty,  and  every  man  did  his  duty.  They  used  to  meet 
together  and  sing  hymns,  and  nobody  cared  to  molest 
them.  The  commander  would  not  have  suffered  it,  if 
they  had  attempted  it.  They  were  allowed  a  mess  to 
themselves."  **I  have  often  heard  them  singing  away 
myself,  and  't  is  true,  I  assure  you,  but  not  one  of  them 
was  either  killed  or  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar, 
though  they  did  their  duty  as  well  as  any  man.  Not  one 
of  the  psalm-singing  gentry  was  even  hurt;  and  there 
the  fellows  are,  swimming  away  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay; 

at  this  very  time,  singing  like  the  d .    They  are  now 

under  a  new  commander,  but  still  are  allowed  the  same 
privileges,  and  mess  by  themselves.  These  are  the  only 
fellows  that  I  ever  knew  do  their  duty  without  swear- 
ing, and  I  will  do  them  the  justice  to  say  they  do  it."^^ 
From  Nelson's  great  victory  of  1805  down  to  the  pres- 
ent hour,  the  Royal  Navy  of  Britain  has  not  lacked  its 
group  of  stalwart  Methodist  seamen,  and  bodies  of  a 
similar  nature  have  been  found  also  in  the  navy  of  the 
United  States  of  America. 

Malta  became  in  1815  another  seat  of  a  society  like 
that  of  Gibraltar.  A  room  was  hired,  religious  services 
were  held,  and  mutual  offices  of  brotherhood  were  en- 
gaged upon  by  men  of  various  ranks.  During  the  Na- 
poleonic wars  the  army  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
had  regularly  organized  Methodist  societies,  Colour- 
Sergeant  Wood  of  the  Grenadier  Guards  was  indefat- 
igable in  organizing  his  fellow-soldiers,  who  in  the  fa- 
mous Guards'  charge  which  put  an  end  to  the  bloody 
career  of  Napoleon  gave  a  good  account  of  themselves, 
as  also  in  the  three  following  years  in  standing  camps. 

"Ibid,  pp.   60,  61. 

313 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

In  the  camp  at  Cambray  alone  fifty  members  met,  of 
whom  Sergeant  Wood  declared,  **We  live  in  peace  one 
with  another,  and  the  blessing  of  God  attends  our  feeble 
efforts." 

Very  important  and  interesting,  indeed,  is  the  mod- 
ern work  of  "Wesleyan  Methodism  done  through  the 
agency  of  the  Army  and  Navy  Board.  The  Wesleyans 
are  pioneers  in  the  establishment  of  soldiers'  homes, 
of  which  they  have  fifty  or  more  in  all  the  prominent 
garrison  towns.  The  first  of  these  centers  of  useful 
service  and  of  pure  influence  was  established  in  1861 
by  Rev.  Charles  Henry  Kelly,  in  the  basement  of  the 
chapel  in  Manor  Street,  Chatham,  Old  Brompton,  called 
by  Mr.  "Wesley  in  his  Journal  *'the  handsome  new 
preaching-house."  In  this  place,  then  neither  new  or 
handsome,  Mr.  Kelly  opened  a  reading-room  and  a  night 
school.  A  room  was  fitted  up  for  prayer  and  for  Chris- 
tian fellowship.  Two  rooms  were  prepared  for  sleep- 
ing— *'the  first  time  that  sleeping  accommodation  had 
ever  been  provided  for  the  men  in  such  an  institution. 
A  considerable  band  of  young  men,  principally  of  the 
Royal  Mariners  and  the  Royal  Engineers,  were  drawn 
to  this  institution,  and  the  story  of  the  night  classes 
held  with  the  assistance  of  a  band  of  staff  sergeant- 
majors  of  the  Royal  Engineers  and  of  a  number  of  uni- 
versity men  who  had  drifted  into  the  army  through  dis- 
sipation and  who  were  thus  redeemed  to  useful  and  even 
to  Christian  lives,  has  been  well  told  in  the  attractive 
book  to  which  reference  has  been  so  frequently  made  in 
these  pages.^2  Splendid  buildings  followed  the  initial 
soldiers'  home,  and  they  were  equipped  with  modern  in- 
stitutional features,  and  accompanied  by  "Wesleyan  gar- 

^^Watkins,  op,  cit.,  p.  160:  *'The  work  was  effective.  Many  vrho 
but  for  this  help  would  never  have  risen  were  enabled  to  qualify  for 
promotion;  and  in  the  Bible-meetings  many  were  led  to  a  saving  knowl- 
edge of  Jesus  Christ." 

314 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

rison  churches  of  substantial  architecture.  By  the  year 
1905  the  forty  homes  provided  sleeping  accommodations 
for  45,308  men,  and  they  had  become  a  vast  commercial 
as  well  as  a  philanthropic  enterprise. ^^  The  value  of  the 
homes,  as  reported  at  the  above  date,  was  £73,923,^*  a 
sum  which  has  been  greatly  increased  in  subsequent 
years. 

These  institutions  have  been  followed  by  those  of 
other  Churches,  but  the  Methodists  are  far  in  the  lead 
in  the  development  of  their  plans.  Besides  perhaps  a 
score  of  chaplains  giving  their  whole  time  to  the  spir- 
itual care  of  British  soldiers  and  sailors,  more  than  a 
hundred  and  twenty-five  others  give  part  time.  These 
men  have  instituted  Wesleyan  classes  so  widely  that 
scarcely  a  regiment  or  warship  in  the  British  service  is 
without  such  a  society,  creating  a  Christian  fellowship 
which  is  not  only  delightful  to  the  members,  but  which 
constitutes  an  effective  evangelistic  agency.  Gospel 
meetings  are  regularly  held  in  the  soldiers'  homes  and 
on  the  battleships,  and  splendid  accounts  of  results 
achieved  from  the  services  held  and  from  the  kindnesses 
rendered  in  the  barracks  and  on  the  battlefield  by  Meth- 
odist men  and  by  their  leaders  are  contained  in  the  pub- 
lications of  the  Church. 

In  a  previous  chapter  it  has  been  stated  that  in 
England  and  in  her  dependencies  the  non-conformist 
Churches  are  co-operating  in  Pleasant  Sunday  After- 
noon Societies  and  in  ** brotherhoods."^^  The  latter 
bodies  are  of  a  somewhat  similar  nature  and  origin,  but 
they  are  usually  more  definitely  religious,  and  are  more 
firmly;  implanted  within  the  Church  organizations  in 
which  they  are  established.  '*The  brotherhoods"  there- 
fore represent  a  later  and  somewhat  reformed  type  of 
these  societies,  and  in  their  foundation  the  "Wesleyans 

"Ibid,  p.  161.  "Ibid,  p.  177. 

"  See  pages  280  and  290. 

315 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

were  the  pioneers  as  they  are  at  present  the  leaders  in 
this  whole  movement. 

It  was  about  1904  that  Rev.  Herbert  M.  Nield,  a 
mission  leader  in  Bradford,  Yorkshire,  originated  the 
famous  Eastbrook  Brotherhood,  which  has  been  the  in- 
spiration of  the  recent  and  stronger  British  brother- 
hood development.^^  Of  still  later  organization  are  the 
many  noted  Wesleyan  Brotherhoods,  whose  memberships 
in  some  cases  run  up  into  four  figures,  and  some  of  whom 
conduct  Sunday  afternoon  meetings  attended  by  from 
six  or  seven  hundred  up  to  three  or  four  thousand  of 
men  throughout  the  year.  Among  the  most  aggressive 
societies  may  be  named  the  East  Ham  Brotherhood,  Lon- 
don, the  three  Wesleyan  Brotherhoods  of  Hull,  the  Vic- 
toria Hall  Brotherhood  of  Sheffield,  the  Marsh  Lane 
Brotherhood,  Bootle,  near  Liverpool,  and  Albert  Hall, 
Nottingham.  Sheffield  has  another  successful  brother- 
hood aside  from  that  at  Victoria  Hall;  namely,  the 
Men's  Meeting  of  Wesley  Hall.  These  two  brotherhoods 
of  the  same  city  are  of  especial  interest  as  representing 
differing  ideals  due  to  contrasted  locations  and  plans. 
Rev.  C.  E.  Walters,  who  originated  the  work  at  Wesley, 
sought  for  his  purpose  not  numbers,  but  more  thorough 
Christian  culture.  The  six  or  seven  hundred  men  whom 
he  gathered  were  made  directly  a  working  force  for  the 
Church,  and  they  were  taught  by  the  pastor,  who  occu- 
pied the  platform  himself  three  Sundays  out  of  four. 
Like  Mr.  Walters,  Rev.  George  H.  McNeal  in  the  man- 
agement of  the  Victoria  Hall  work  acted  as  president, 
but  he  did  not  undertake  the  larger  part  of  the  instruc- 
tion, and  he  aimed  at  institutional  features.  About  fif- 
teen hundred  men  and  the  same  number  of  women  were 
soon  drawn  into  allied  societies.  Aside  from  the  great 
Sunday  meetings,  athletic,  literary,  and  musical  organi- 

w  ♦ 'Brotherhood  and  Democracy,"  Ward,  p.  196. 

316 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

zations  were  developed.  The  brotherhood  now  has 
swimming,  cricket,  football,  and  rambling  clubs,  a  book 
club,  and  orchestral  and  choral  societies  which  help  in 
the  Sunday  music  and  which  also  give  frequent  con- 
certs and  oratorios.  For  the  management  of  this  large 
and  complex  company  the  city  was  divided  into  fifty- 
two  districts,  each  having  a  captain.  Each  member  was 
numbered  and,  on  attending  Sunday  meeting,  reported 
his  presence  to  one  of  a  large  corps  of  secretaries  at  the 
entrance.  Those  absent  for  any  length  of  time  were 
reported  to  the  nearest  captain  to  be  looked  up  and  to 
be  brought  back  into  his  place  in  the  brotherhood.  Thus 
this  numerous  down-town  society  was  built  up  and 
strengthened.  The  pastors  in  charge  report  the  Sheffield 
brotherhoods  as  being  powerful  feeders  of  Church  mem- 
bership, one  of  them  saying,  *'Half  of  my  enquirers 
at  the  Sunday  night  services  come  wearing  the  brother- 
hood button." 

The  idea  sometimes  obtains  that  the  number  of  the 
Wesleyan  brotherhoods  is  small,  being  confined  to  a 
few  which  are  in  the  mission  halls  and  which  are  of 
vast  membership.  The  fact  is  the  reverse.  Throughout 
the  Wesleyan  Churches  are  many  of  these  organizations, 
some  of  them  being  very  small,  but,  it  is  said,  being  often 
not  less  useful  relatively  than  are  the  organizations  of 
great  size  and  note. 

Before  passing  from  the  topic  of  "Wesleyan  brother- 
hoods some  reference  should  be  made  to  the  **  Slate 
Clubs''  which  sprang  into  existence  as  a  Christian  move- 
ment intended  to  counteract  the  harmful  influence  of 
the  secular  "Friendly  Societies."  The  Friendly  Socie- 
ties of  Great  Britain  were  organized  to  aid  the  working 
classes  in  times  of  sickness  and  death,  and  they  estab- 
lished co-operative  funds  for  relief  in  these  crises.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  many  of  these  societies  associated 

317 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

themselves  with  ** public  houses/*  where  their  meetings 
were  held  and  where  men  were  encouraged  to  form 
habits  of  dissipation.  It  was  a  Wesleyan  '4ocal 
preacher''  who,  seeing  a  friend  coming  out  of  one  of 
these  places,  asked  him  if  the  men  wouldn't  meet  in 
the  Methodist  Chapel  if  the  trustees  would  permit  them 
to  use  the  premises.  Having  received  a  hopeful  answer, 
this  zealous  spirit  went  to  work  to  secure  consent  for 
such  an  arrangement  and  to  bring  about  the  change  of 
location.  Out  of  this  action  came  the  various  forms  of 
mutual  aid  societies  which  for  a  long  time  brought 
financial  benefit  to  large  numbers  of  persons  and  which 
doubtless  prepared  the  way  for  their  own  extinction  by 
agitating  the  subject  of  insurance  for  working  people 
under  governmental  encouragement  and  control.  The 
Slate  Club  idea  was  the  contribution  to  a  common  fund 
of  various  small  amounts,  which,  being  put  at  interest, 
resulted  in  a  slight  additional  profit.  At  the  year's 
end,  the  sums  put  in  by  various  members  being  divided 
in  proportion  to  their  contributions,  the  slate  was 
washed  clean,  and  the  club  by  vote  might  renew  its  ex- 
istence or  disband.  A  similar  plan,  used  in  case  of 
the  very  poor,  has  provided  a  special  fund  to  be  drawn 
out  and  enjoyed  at  Christmas  time.  Another  name  for 
work  of  this  nature  is  ''Thrift  Club."^^ 

In  the  United  States  of  America,  Methodist  brother- 
hood work  arose  from  various  independent  societies 
which  began  their  work  during  the  last  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  After  a  time  groups  of  chapters 
were  formed,  and  these  began  to  take  on  strength.  After 
describing  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  and  the 
Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip,  Professor  Cressey 
says  of  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Paul,  an  organization  of 
Methodist  men,  ''This  is  the  third  Protestant  fraternity 

"  "Brotherhood  and  I>emocracy, "  op.  cit.,  p.  65. 

318 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

of  young  men  in  the  United  States  in  point  of  age,  and 
is  confined  to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. ' '  ^^  This 
society,  whose  work  began  in  1894,  and  was  reorganized 
in  1896,  held  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  in  1898  a  general  con- 
vention.^® 

About  the  same  time  as  that  of  the  beginning  of  the 
Brotherhood  of  St.  Paul  arose  another  society  of  Meth- 
odist men,  which  was  several  times  reorganized  under 
various  titles,  finally  replacing  the  name  Mizpah 
Brotherhood  with  that  of  Wesley  Brotherhood.  In  1907 
the  National  Convention  of  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Paul, 
held  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  the  Broad  Street  Church,  re- 
quested the  Wesley  Brotherhood  to  appoint  an  equal 
number  of  delegates  to  meet  those  whom  they  had 
elected  and,  if  possible,  to  effect  consolidation.  In 
March,  1908,  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  these  representatives 
came  together  and  decided  to  organize  the  Methodist 
Brotherhood,  a  society  which  should  be  pan-Methodistic 
in  its  scope,  if  not  in  its  actual  labors.  The  result  is  a 
brotherhood  which  for  the  succeeding  years  has  been 
slowly  but,  it  is  believed,  safely  and  substantially  de- 
veloped in  strength  and  in  usefulness.  The  first  presi- 
dent was  Mr.  Harvey  E.  Dingley,  a  distinguished  lay- 
man of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and  formerly  for  some  years 
president  of  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Paul. 

The  general  constitution  of  the  Methodist  Brother- 
hood stated  its  object  in  this  way:  **The  aim  of  this  or- 
ganization is  to  effect  the  mutual  improvement  of  its 
members  by  religious,  social,  literary,  and  physical  cul- 
ture; to  promote  the  spirit  and  practice  of  Christian 
brotherhood;  to  increase  fraternal  interest  among  men; 
to  develop  their  activity  in  all  that  relates  to  social,  civic, 

"Professor  F.  G.  Cressey,  "The  Church  and  Young  Men,"  p.  123. 
See  also  "International  Encyclopedia." 

i»  "Northern  Christian  Advocate,"  March  22,  1899. 

319 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

and  industrial  betterment,  and  to  build  up  the  ChurcH 
by  leading  men  into  its  communion  and  fellowship/'^* 
Membership  in  the  brotherhood  was  thus  outlined:  **A1I 
men's  organizations  of  whatever  name,  existing  in  Meth- 
odist Churches,  or  that  may  hereafter  exist,  approved 
by  the  Quarterly  Conference,  are  recognized  as  Chapters 
of  The  Methodist  Brotherhood,  and  upon  application 
for  and  adoption  of  the  Constitution  shall  be  enrolled  as 
active  Chapters.  Constitutions  of  Local  Chapters  shall 
be  in  accord  with  the  general  Constitution."  In  the 
local  chapter  membership  is  open  to  * '  any  man  approved 
by  the  Executive  Committee  and  elected  by  a  majority 
of  members  present  at  any  regular  meeting."  It  will 
be  observed  that  brotherhood  membership  was  not  con- 
ditioned upon  Church  membership. 

The  work  which  is  being  conducted  by  the  men  of 
Methodism  in  perhaps  fifteen  hundred  places  in  America 
and  in  Europe,  including  also  a  few  in  other  regions, 
will  be  better  understood  by  considering  the  *' Lines  of 
Activity"  laid  out  for  standing  committees.  ''Commit- 
tee on  Religious  Work,  Bible  and  Mission  Study,  Chair- 
man :  The  First  Vice-President.  Increase  attendance  at 
regular  church  services.  Recruit  the  Sunday  school 
(with  male  pupils  and  teachers).  Conduct  Men's  De- 
votional Meetings.  Promote  systematic  personal  evan- 
gelism. (Win  One  Circle.)  Co-operate  in  revival  ef- 
forts. Establish  and  conduct  neighborhood  and  shop 
meetings.  Take  a  religious  census  of  the  parish.  .  En- 
courage systematic  giving,  tithing,  etc.  Stand  by  Pastor 
and  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Secretary.  Organize  Men's  Bible  Class. 
Build  up  existing  men's  classes  in  Sunday  school.  Ar- 
range for  lectures  on  Bible,  travel  in  Bible  lands,  etc. 
Form  Inter-Church  Bible-Class  Leagues.     Support  nor- 

^The  above  and  following  constitutional  and  official  items  are  taken 
from  the  "Manual  of  the  Methodist  Brotherhood,"  arranged  by  the  Gen- 
eral Secretary,  Rev.  Payette  L.  Thompson,  D,  D.,  and  attractively  printed 
by  the  society  at  150  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

320 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

mal  and  teacher-training  classes.  Urge  men  to  join 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  Bible  Classes.  Affiliate  with  Organized 
Adult  Bible  Class  Movement.  Prosecute  Mission  Study 
in  classes.  Connect  with  Laymen's  Missionary  Move- 
ment. And  in  general  seek  to  revive  and  extend  among 
men  the  intelligent  and  earnest  study  of  the  Word  of 
God,  and  of  the  work  of  those  who  hold  His  commission 
to  '  Go,  preach  the  gospel  to  every  creature. ' 

**  Committee  on  Social  Service  and  Civic  Righteous- 
ness, Chairman:  The  Second  Vice-President.  Study 
local  problems  of  life  and  labor  with  a  view  to  bettering 
conditions.  For  example:  child-labor,  tuberculosis,  un- 
sanitary housing  and  tenements,  unsafe  schools,  etc. 
Plan  to  put  your  church  plant  to  use  every  day  in  the 
week;  reading-room,  gymnasium,  etc.  "Watch  legisla- 
tion, organize  opposition  to  vicious  laws,  and  favor 
moral  reforms.  Help  men  to  better  positions.  Co-oper- 
ate with  social  settlement  workers,  teachers,  etc.  Agitate 
for  a  better  town,  without  saloons,  gambling  dens,  Sun- 
day desecration,  improper  shows,  and  demoralizing  bill- 
boards, and  with  better  schools,  cleaner  streets,  public 
playgrounds,  hospitals,  and  organized  charities.  And 
in  general  strive  not  only  to  quicken  the  religious  zeal 
of  the  members  for  their  own  Church  and  denomination, 
but  to  investigate  the  social  problems  about  them  and 
contribute  toward  their  solution  in  the  spirit  of  Christ. 

** Committee  on  Fellowship,  Chairman:  The  Third 
Vice-President.  Make  visiting  men  and  boys  feel  at 
home  in  your  church.  Keep  inviting  men  to  Brother- 
hood meetings.  See  that  newcomers  are  introduced. 
Print  weekly  bulletin  of  Church.  Help  men  to  find 
lodgings,  work,  friends.  Hold  debates  and  discussions, 
general  and  religious.  Arrange  clubs  for  Parliamentary 
practice.  Distribute  invitations  to  special  services.  Get 
up  entertaining  programs  for  chapter  meetings.  Super- 
vise public  lectures  and  entertainments.  Welcome  ne^^ 
21  321 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

members  and  take  pains  to  extend  their  acquaintance. 
Initiate  musical  features;  glee  clubs,  orchestras,  etc. 
Provide  refreshments.  And  in  general  exemplify  and 
disseminate  the  spirit  of  the  Elder  Brother  among  the 
men  of  the  Chapter  and  Church. 

** Committee  on  Membership,  Chairman:  The  Fourth 
Vice-President.  Watch  out  for  and  win  new  members. 
Exercise  oversight  of  membership  roll.  Operate  'loUow- 
up'  system  for  members.  Have  custody  of  badges,  re- 
galia, rituals,  song  books,  and  other  Chapter  property. 
Prepare  for  initiation  and  installation  ceremonies.  Care 
for  the  Chapter  meeting-room.  Get  subscribers  for 
Church  papers,  and  especially  for  the  Brotherhood 
monthly,  MetJiodist  Men.  Discover  and  report  cases  of 
sickness  and  misfortune.  Relieve  distress  among  mem- 
bers. And  in  general  be  charged  with  the  duty  of  en- 
rolling every  man  who  can  help  or  be  helped  by  your 
chapter  of  'The  Methodist  Brotherhood.'  " 

The  Methodist  Brotherhood  maintains  general  offices, 
with  secretaries,  traveling  and  executive.  Its  organ, 
Methodist  Men,  is  a  magazine  published  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  federated  work,  and  which  treats  broadly  all 
Methodist  lay  societies  and  movements.  A  society  of 
boys  is  called  the  Knights  of  IMethodism,  and  its  ritual 
and  plans  are  based  upon  heroic  and  knightly  models. 
Several  of  the  chapters  have  mutual  benefit  branches, 
which  have  proven  to  be  successful  and  permanent 
wherever  they  have  been  established,  but  which  have  not 
greatly  increased  in  number.  Like  the  other  modem 
Church  brotherhoods,  that  of  the  Methodist  Churches 
is  but  coming  into  its  own  in  the  recognition  of  the  de- 
nomination and  in  the  attainment  of  assured  plans  of 
accomplishing  its  ends.  The  movement  of  this  society 
has  been  broadened  from  the  primary  object  of  evan- 
gelism, which  most  fully  occupied  the  attention  of  its 
organizers,  to  take  in  the  thought  of  social  and  of  civic 

322 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

service.^ ^  It  is  felt,  however,  by  some  of  the  strongest 
men  of  Methodism  that  there  is  a  peril  in  this  develop- 
ment, unless  it  be  wisely  guarded,  and  that  the  brother- 
hood must  not  be  permitted  to  devote  its  strength  to 
forms  of  work,  no  matter  how  useful,  which  will  ob- 
scure the  ideal  of  a  constant  and  intelligent  man-saving 
effort.  As  Methodism,  by  its  very  origin,  and  also  by 
its  true  spirit,  is  evangelistic,  its  work  for  men  is  not 
likely  to  be  unduly  influenced  by  the  materialistic  tend- 
encies which  in  a  few  instances  have  restricted  the  re- 
ligious power  of  similar  societies. 

** Probably  the  oldest  men's  organization,''  says  Dr. 
Miller,  '4s  the  Young  Men's  Guild  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  (Presbyterian)  and  the  Young  Men's  Guild 
of  the  United  Free  Churches  of  Scotland,  also  Presby- 
terian. This  organization  does  all  sorts  of  work  in  the 
local  congregation.  One  particularly  excellent  feature 
has  been  the  issue  of  guild  text-books  covering  Bible 
study.  Church  history,  and  missions.  The  two  guilds 
of  these  Churches  have  each  their  own  monthly  maga- 
zine.''^2 

Of  course  the  statement  of  priority  above  made  is 
for  Christian  men's  organizations,  and  makes  no  account 
of  the  societies  of  Roman  Catholics.  Nor  does  it  take 
into  account  older  Protestant  societies,  later  discon- 
tinued or  merged  into  new  forms.  Undoubtedly  the 
men's  work  in  the  Churches  of  Scotland  is  very  old,  as 
contrasted  with  the  modern  Protestant  Church  brother- 
hoods, and  the  work  done  by  the  men  of  the  Scottish 
Churches  presents  a  very  interesting  picture  of  useful- 
ness. 

21  See  the  official  declaration  to  the  General  Conference  of  1908, 
published  in  "Modern  Church  Brotherhoods,"  Patterson,  pp.  56-58.  The 
author  of  this  book  was  followed  as  General  Secretary  of  the  Methodist 
Brotherhood  by  Rev.  Fayette  Li.  Thompson,  D.  D.,  whose  activities  in  his 
own  and  in  federated  brotherhood  movements  are  well  known. 

''Dr.  Bufus  W,  Miller,  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip,  reporting 
a  visit  to  England. 

323 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  Scottish  Brotherhood  Union,  representing  the 
Pleasant  Sunday  Afternoon  movement,  is,  as  has  been 
stated,  non-sectarian.  Of  course,  great  numbers  of  the 
Presbyterian  men  of  Scotland  are  actively  affiliated  with 
this  organization,  as  are  the  members  of  other  denomi- 
national bodies  of  Scotia. 

The  Presbyterian  Brotherhood  of  America  was  es- 
tablished in  the  year  1906.  Two  years  before  that  time, 
by  the  Presbytery  of  Mahoning,  an  overture  had  been 
adopted  looking  to  such  a  step,  and  this  document  was 
forwarded  to  the  General  Assembly  of  1905,  which  body 
appointed  a  committee  to  consider  the  matter  carefully 
and  to  report  to  the  next  assembly.  The  paper  brought 
in  by  this  committee  was  elaborately  prepared,  and  it 
indicated  that  much  careful  thought  had  been  given  to 
the  previously  undertaken  men's  work  of  local  Presby- 
terian Churches.  Moreover,  a  great  deal  of  correspond- 
ence had  elicited  the  views  of  leading  pastors  and  lay- 
men with  reference  to  the  need  of  a  united  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  men  of  the  Church,  and  as  to  what  form, 
in  their  judgment,  that  effort  should  take.  The  result 
was  that  approval  was  given  to  the  establishment  *'of 
a  brotherhood  within  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  to  include  all  men's  organi- 
zations now  existing  or  hereafter  to  be  formed  in  con- 
nection with  local  congregations."^^ 

To  begin  with,  all  societies  of  men  in  existence  in 
Presbyterian  Churches  under  the  administration  of  the 
General  Assembly  were  made  charter  members  of  the 
new  brotherhood,  and  the  Churches  which  contained  no 
such  bodies  were  requested  to  organize.  The  General 
Assembly  appointed  a  standing  committee  on  brother- 
hood and  a  small  effective  committee  to  promote  organi- 
zation, and  a  laymen's  convention  was  ordered. 

The  first  Presbyterian  Brotherhood  convention  met 

2"  "Modern  Church  Brotherhoods,"  William  B.  Patterson,  pp.  63,  64. 

324 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

at  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  in  November  of  1906  and  was  at- 
tended by  fifteen  hundred  men,  of  whom  twelve  hundred 
were  laymen.  Plans  of  organization  and  work  were 
brought  to  completion  at  the  time  of  this  great  gather- 
ing. In  the  constitution  matured  the  object  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Brotherhood  was  declared  to  be  *'to  promote, 
assist,  and  federate  all  forms  of  organized  activity;  of 
men  in  the  churches  which  have  for  their  purpose  the 
winning  of  men  to  Christ  and  the  Church,  the  promo- 
tion of  spiritual  development,  and  the  training  in  use- 
fulness of  men  connected  with  the  congregations, 
through  prayer,  Bible  study,  and  Christian  service,  the 
strengthening  of  fellowship,  and  the  extension  of 
Christ's  Kingdom  at  home  and  abroad.''^*  In  addition 
to  the  wide  outlook  suggested  by  this  statement,  a  new 
note  is  struck  by  one  of  the  several  resolutions  passed 
at  the  second  convention  in  1907:  '^Resolved,  That  the 
Presbyterian  Brotherhood  of  America  extends  its  con- 
gratulations to  the  Church  at  large,  and  recognizes  with 
great  thanksgiving  the  evident  leading  of  God  in  bring- 
ing to  Christian  men  of  our  own  and  other  Churches 
a  fuller  recognition  of  the  high  claim  of  citizenship  and 
a  closer  association  in  hearty  service  in  behalf  of  better 
standards  of  commercial  integrity,  civic  righteousness, 
and  personal  purity.  The  men  of  our  Church  are  urged 
to  use  their  power  of  prayer  and  personal  service  in 
aid  of  all  fit  agencies  for  securing  a  continuance  and 
enlargement  of  their  efficiency  as  Christian  men,  through 
all  movements  which  make  for  commercial  integrity,  for 
civic  honesty,  for  home  and  social  protection,  for  the 
destruction  of  the  liquor  traffic,  and  for  personal  purity 
in  heart  and  life.'' 

The  government  of  the  Presbyterian  Brotherhood  is 
**  vested  in  a  council  of  twenty-one  members,  who  shall 

« Pamphlet,    "Suggested    Constitution,"    etc.,    published   by    Presby- 
terian Brotherhood  of  America,  509  South  Wabash,  Chicago. 

325 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

be  members  of  some  organization  belonging  to  the 
Brotherhood,  of  whom  ten  shall  constitute  a  quorum.  "^^ 
In  the  local  brotherhoods,  besides  the  usual  officers,  a 
committee  plan  is  arranged  as  follows:  1.  Executive 
Committee.  Composed  of  the  officers  and  the  chairmen 
of  the  several  committees,  to  have  general  direction. 
2-  Membership  Committee.  To  secure  new  members  and 
to  encourage  the  fidelity  and  usefulness  of  all  members. 
3.  Committee  of  Inside  Work.  To  have  special  respon- 
sibility for  work  done  in  connection  with  meetings  in 
the  Church,  and  specifically  (a)  to  welcome  strangers 
and  occasional  attendants;  to  introduce  them  to  mem- 
bers and  the  pastor ;  to  cultivate  the  spirit  of  fellowship 
among  the  men  of  the  Church  and  congregation;  (b)  to 
stimulate  the  interest  of  men  in  all  the  church  services; 
to  prepare,  under  the  pastor's  approval,  musical  or 
other  programs,  especially  for  the  Sunday  evening  serv- 
ice; (c)  to  provide  such  social  meetings  as  shall  be  for 
the  best  interest  of  the  men  of  the  congregation;  (d)  to 
hold  religious  meetings  for  men,  and  through  these  and 
other  proper  means  bring  the  gospel  invitation  and 
Christian  obligation  to  men  individually;  (e)  to  inform 
and  interest  the  men  of  the  congregation  in  its  mission- 
ary and  benevolent  operations.  4.  Committee  of  Out- 
side Work.  To  have  special  responsibility  for  work  to 
be  done  outside  the  Church,  and  specifically  (a)  to  in- 
vite strangers  and  non-churchgoers  to  the  services  of  this 
Church;  to  secure  regularity  of  attendance  by  the  men 
of  the  congregation  who  are  irregular  or  indifferent; 
(b)  to  use  all  proper  means  to  advertise  the  work  and 
services  of  the  Church;  (c)  to  visit  strangers  and  the 
sick,  and  report  all  such  eases  to  the  pastor  and  execu- 
tive committee.  5.  The  Finance  Committee.  To  pro- 
vide the  funds  necessary  for  the  work.  The  treasurer 
shall  be  chairman.^^ 

» Pamphlet,  cit.  sup.  "Ibid,  pp.  11  and  12. 

326 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

Other  committees  suggested  to  such  organizations  as 
prefer  to  more  fully  develop  departmental  work  are 
those  on  Bible  study,  prayer,  missions,  hoys'  work, 
evangelism,  invitation  and  welcome,  membership,  at- 
tendance, social  work,  worship,  prayer-meeting,  commis- 
sary, vigilance,  advertising,  care  of  sick  and  poor,  rooms, 
civics,  ushers,  law  and  order,  and  many  others,  part 
of  which  are  merely  various  other  names  for  the  same 
classes  of  work. 

For  those  interested  in  its  activities  the  Presbjiie- 
rian  Brotherhood  issues  explanatory  and  inspirational 
literature.  The  magazine  representing  the  interests  of 
the  society  began  publication  in  1907  and  is  called  by 
the  name  of  the  organization.  The  St.  Louis  convention 
of  1911  instituted  the  practice  of  printing  both  the  ad- 
dresses and  the  discussions  of  the  chief  meeting  of  the 
brotherhood,  together  with  the  reports  given  by  the 
council  and  committees,  and  the  result  was  a  handsome 
volume  of  425  pages,  called  ''Presbyterian  Men.'' 

Success  has  so  far  attended  the  brotherhood  move- 
ment in  the  Presbyterian  Church  that  if  not  only  its 
chartered  bodies  but  its  independent  men's  societies 
were  numbered  it  would  be  found  that  the  Presbyterian 
Brotherhood  represents  more  than  fourteen  hundred  or- 
ganizations and  weU  towards  seventy  thousand  men. 
Many  of  the  members  of  the  brotherhood  are  working 
in  the  great  movements  of  the  day,  *'not  primarily  as 
brotherhood  men,  nor  even  as  Presbyterians,  but  as 
Christ's  men,  fired  with  a  passion  for  winning  our 
brother  men  to  Him  and  His  Kingdom.  "^^  Synodical 
and  presbyterial  brotherhoods  are  used  to  stir  up  in- 
terest in  organization  work  and  in  local  development. 
*'The  Presbyterial  organization  exists  merely  for  the 
purpose  of  making  the  local  work  more  efficient,  and 

"The    Program    of    the    Brotherhood,    1911-1912,    Charles    S.    Holt, 
president,  in  "Tli©  Presbyterian  Brotherhood,"  Vol.  V,  No.  1. 

327 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

for  increasing  the  number  of  local  units.  It  has  no 
great  activity  outside  of  that,  though  there  may  be  some 
work  which  the  Presbyterial  Brotherhood  can  do  which 
the  local  brotherhoods  can  not  do.  The  SynodicaL 
Brotherhood  exists  for  increasing  the  activity  and  prac- 
tice of  the  Presbyterial  Brotherhood  and  for  the  benefit 
of  the  local  organizations  also."^* 

From  its  inception  the  Presbyterian  Brotherhood  be- 
gan to  make  history,  and  within  a  few  years  of  its  foun- 
dation the  following  statement  was  made  covering  the 
undertakings  which  had  been  actually  and  successfully 
accomplished  in  one  or  more  of  its  local  organizations: 
** Aided  in  settlement  work;  improved  tenement  con- 
ditions; aided  in  the  city  night  schools;  lecture  courses 
were  provided;  had  a  brotherhood  baseball  team;  led 
men  into  Church  membership;  paid  off  the  church's 
building  debt;  made  the  church  attractive  to  men; 
educated  a  young  man  for  the  ministry;  organized 
new  churches  in  the  presbytery;  stressed  spiritual 
culture  and  the  prayer-life;  took  active  part  in  the 
inter-Church  federation;  prepared  and  served  a  supper 
to  the  whole  church;  promoted  Bible  study  among  col- 
lege fraternities;  paid  hospital  and  doctors'  bills  for 
needy  members ;  conducted  the  midweek  prayer-meeting 
once  a  month ;  did  religious  work  in  neighboring  foreign 
settlements;  co-operated  with  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association ;  helped  to  relieve  and  prevent  habitual 
drunkenness;  took  an  active  part  in  a  moral  cleansing 
of  the  town;  supplied  a  vacant  pulpit  until  a  pastor 
could  be  employed;  published  and  distributed  copies  of 
the  pastor's  sermons;  had  health  lectures  by  local  phy- 
sicians and  specialists;  advisory  committees  were  ap- 
pointed to  work  with  the  pastor;  'the  workers  in  our 
church  are  mostly  brotherhood  men.'  " 

28  "Presbyterian  Men,"  p.  160,  address,  "Things  Accomplished," 
Bev.  Ira  Landrith,  D.  D. 

328 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

Other  chapters  *' invited  State  officers  to  lecture  on 
their  work  at  the  capitol;  asked  individual  boys  occa- 
sionally to  attend  the  men's  meetings;  one  brotherhood 
leached  directly  in  its  influence  eleven  hundred  men; 
studied  poverty  conditions  and  worked  with  charity  or- 
ganizations; card  index  records  were  kept  of  members 
and  their  attendance;  printed  and  circulated  weekly  a 
blotter  advertising  the  services ;  committee  appointed  to 
secure  work  for  unemployed  members ;  considered  plans 
for  the  solution  of  the  problems  of  vagrancy;  kept  a 
committee  of  men  at  the  church  door  to  welcome  attend- 
ants; the  pastor  considered  the  brotherhood  as  his  own 
good  right  arm;  gave  monthly  illustrated  lectures  on 
practical  problems  of  religious  life ;  held  monthly  social 
meetings  for  the  playing  of  wholesome  games ;  promoted 
the  plans  of  the  playground  enterprises  for  the  chil- 
dren ;  advertised  in  newspapers  and  otherwise  all  of  the 
church  services;  the  Men  and  Religion  Forward  Move- 
ment was  indorsed  and  promoted;  employed  a  man's 
evangelist  and  held  a  series  of  meetings  for  men;  fur- 
nished prepared  men  for  Sunday  school  teachers  and 
church  officers;  many  brotherhoods  had  Big  Brother 
department  of  work  for  boys;  instituted  a  campaign 
against  short  weights  and  false  measures  in  stores ;  cor- 
dial co-operation  was  given  the  Laymen's  Missionary 
Movement ;  one  Sunday  evening  service  a  month  was  in 
charge  of  the  brotherhood." 

This  diversified  work  continues  thus:  ** Started  a 
campaign  which  doubled  the  missionary  offerings  of  the 
church;  collected  twenty-five  cents  a  month  dues,  and 
thus  provided  for  all  financial  needs ;  assisted  in  enforc- 
ing the  pure-food  laws,  especially  those  against  bad 
milk;  had  two  Bible  classes,  one  for  the  older  and  an- 
other for  the  younger  men ;  found  that  Bible  class  gives 
immortality  to  the  brotherhood  organization;  embraced 
in  its  membership  an  ushers'  society  and  men's  prayer 

329 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

circle ;  sick  members  were  looked  after  by  the  committee 
on  visitation  of  the  sick;  erected  a  brotherhood  club- 
house, placing  privileges  at  $2  per  year ;  for  boys,  $1 ; 
showed  intelligent  sympathy  with  all  righteous  conten- 
tions of  the  labor  unions ;  established  a  strangers'  bureau 
for  looking  after  moving  Presbyterian  men ;  opposed  the 
vicious  amusement  places  and  the  vile  picture-shows  of 
the  neighborhood;  affiliated  with  other  local  brother- 
hoods in  interdenominational  work  for  civic  morals; 
pledges  to  pray  definitely  and  regularly  for  the  conver- 
sion of  individuals  were  signed;  issued  annual  hand- 
book, with  constitution,  programs,  committees  and 
names  of  members;  pledged  members  to  make  three  or 
more  calls  each  month  on  designated  church  families; 
provided  a  Sunday  school  teacher-training  class ;  assisted 
in  popular  education  about  the  prevention  of  disease, 
particularly  tuberculosis;  proposed  an  annual  offering 
of  five  dollars  per  member  as  the  minimum  for  for- 
eign missions;  investigations  instituted  on  condition  of 
employed  women  and  children  in  the  community;  pro- 
moted attendance  on  all  Sunday  evening  services;  saw 
that  every  man  who  attended  the  church  services  re- 
ceived a  genuinely  manly  welcome;  developed  among 
the  men  a  sense  of  personal  responsibility  for  church 
growth  and  usefulness;  brotherhood  members  lunched 
together  downtown  once  a  week,  using  the  time  for 
conference;  held  weekly  luncheon  meetings  of  the  ex- 
ecutive committee  to  consider  brotherhood  work;  made 
special  effort  to  reach  young  men  in  local  medical  col- 
leges and  other  institutions  of  learning;  published  a 
time  pledge-card  committing  men  to  give  a  definite 
amount  of  time  to  church  work.*' 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  some  organizations 
''studied  the  Confession  of  Faith  and  the  work  at  home 
and  abroad  of  the  Presbyterian  Church;  erected  a 
brotherhood  home  in  a  small  town,  equipping  it  on  the 

330 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

order  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.;  dues,  $3  a  year;  'tackled  the 
boy  problem'  by  erecting  an  $18,000  gymnasium  in  a 
town  where  there  is  no  Y.  M.  C.  A.;  talked  up  the 
wearing  of  the  brotherhood  button  until  the  members 
were  proud  to  be  *badged  believers;'  co-operated  in  an 
interdenominational  laymen's  council  for  evangelistic 
w  ork  and  for  the  general  weal  of  the  city ;  brotherhoods 
in  small  towns,  with  the  men's  Bible  class  as  a  nucleus, 
found  interdenominational  meetings  a  blessing;  divided 
the  parish  into  districts,  with  an  organization  in  the 
brotherhood  to  look  after  the  men  and  boys  in  each  dis- 
trict ;  appointed  a  committee  to  gather  the  church 's  of- 
fering to  foreign  missions,  following  the  laymen's  mis- 
sionary campaign;  *our  brotherhood  has  initiated  every 
new  movement  that  has  lately  taken  place  to  improve 
and  strengthen  our  local  church,'  used  the  souvenir 
postal  picture  of  the  church  building  to  advertise  the 
church  service  among  traveling  men  at  local  hotels; 
worked  for  a  pipe  organ  and  a  new  parsonage,  took 
care  of  the  church's  property,  and  constituted  the  pas- 
tor's real  aid  society;  a  campaign  was  inaugurated  in 
city  brotherhood  to  prevent  the  sending  of  young  boy 
messengers  to  places  of  doubtful  moral  character;  many 
brotherhoods  are  patronizing  the  American  Institute  of 
Social  Service,  Bible  House,  New  York,  and  are  regu- 
larly taking  its  studies  in  social  service ;  had  occasional 
home-talent  after-dinner  programs,  with  brief  talks  by 
many  members  on  such  themes  as  Friendship,  Loyalty, 
and  Benevolence."^® 

The  Southern  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  1908  at  Greensboro,  N.  C,  estab- 
lished an  organization  called  *  *  The  Presbyterian  Brother- 
hood for  Men."  It  is  based  upon  the  same  essential 
principles  as  those  of  other  modem  Protestant  brother^ 

*^  Published  in  "The  Presbyterian  Brotherhood,"  and  also  in  *'Meth. 
Odist  Men,"  Vol,  V,  pp.  182-184. 

331 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

hoods,  and  its  methods  are  not  dissimilar  to  those  of  the 
Northern  Presbyterian  body.  Its  outline  of  committees 
comprises  Bible  study,  prayer,  Christian  culture,  mis- 
sions, stewardship,  extension,  social  work,  personal  work, 
and  religious  meetings;  the  organization  is,  of  course, 
under  the  control  of  the  General  Assembly,  and  it  pub- 
lishes suitable  literature  for  the  propagation  and  direc- 
tion of  its  work.^° 

Until  1911  the  United  Presbyterian  Brotherhood  of 
North  America  was  known  as  the  Men's  League.  The 
organization  of  this  fraternity  was  preceded  by  the  rec- 
ommendation in  1904  of  a  men's  missionary  league, 
which  did  not  come  to  pass  in  any  successful  form. 
However,  the  interest  excited  by  its  suggestion  led  to  the 
calling  of  a  business  men's  conference  at  Pittsburgh  in 
February,  1906,  and  which  adopted  a  constitution  for 
a  men's  league.  In  sending  forth  this  constitution, 
Mr.  J.  Campbell  "White,  the  first  secretary  of  the  League, 
said:  "The  United  Presbyterian  Men's  Movement  is  the 
composite  result  of  many  experiments  and  of  many 
minds.  It  aims  to  outline  a  workable  plan  by  which 
these  four  business  and  spiritual  principles'^  can  be 
applied  to  the  work  of  the  ordinary  congregation. 
Methods  will  naturally  differ  somewhat  in  different 
communities,  but  if  these  are  ultimate  principles  they 
should  be  capable  of  application  under  all  conditions. 
The  perfecting  of  the  plan  by  which  all  the  men  of  the 
churches  are  to  be  set  at  active,  personal,  and  co-oper- 
ative service  of  Christ  and  their  fellow-men  is  a  privi- 
lege which  angels  might  covet,  and  to  which  men  of 
intelligence  can  well  give  their  very  best  experience 
and  consideration." 

The  stated  object  of  the  Men's  League  was  thus 

^Handbook  of  "The  Presbyterian  Brotherhood  for  Men,"  Rich- 
mond, Va. 

81  "1,  Definition,  2.  Supervision,  3.  Organization,  4.  Co-operation;" 
"The  Men's  Movement,"  p.  9. 

332 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

formulated:  *'(1)  To  enlist  every  male  member  of  the 
church  in  some  form  of  active  Christian  service,  and 
so  to  supervise  the  work  of  the  league  in  all  its  depart- 
ments as  to  enable  each  member  to  render  his  largest 
and  best  service  to  the  Kingdom  of  Christ.  (2)  To  pro- 
mote an  intelligent  grasp  of  the  conditions  under  which 
America  and  the  world  can  be  evangelized,  and  to  assist 
the  officers  of  the  congregation  in  securing  adequate 
financial  support  for  the  entire  educational  and  mis- 
sionary work  of  the  Church  at  home  and  abroad,  every 
congregation  paying  as  a  minimum  the  full  amount 
asked  of  it  by  the  General  Assembly. ' '  ^^ 

Eleven  departments  of  the  league  were  decided  upon 
and  were  instituted.  These  were :  1.  Department  for  pro- 
moting religious  intelligence,  including  the  circulation  of 
literature.  2.  Department  of  finance.  3.  Department 
for  promoting  friendliness,  and  for  work  among  stran- 
gers and  new-comers.  4.  Department  for  promoting 
habits  of  personal  and  family  prayer  and  Bible  study, 
and  also  the  work  of  the  Sabbath  school.  5.  Department 
for  promoting  Christian  effort,  and  for  work  among  new 
converts.  6.  Department  for  promoting  neighborhood 
work,  including  special  work  among  foreigners.  7.  De- 
partment for  promoting  attendance  both  of  members 
and  outsiders  at  the  regular  church  services.  8.  Depart- 
ment for  promoting  reform.  9.  Department  for  helping 
the  sick  and  the  poor.  10.  Department  for  promoting 
intellectual  development.  11.  Department  for  work 
among  young  men  and  boys.  This  outline  of  appropri- 
ate undertakings  for  a  society  of  men  can  hardly  be 
excelled  for  completeness,  or  for  fitting  nomenclature. 

The  literature  of  the  Men's  League  showed  that  es- 
pecial emphasis  was  placed  upon  financial  responsibility 
to  the  Kingdom  of  Christ.  As  the  origin  of  this  brother- 
hood was  due  to  missionary  zeal,  it  is  not  surprising 

*3  First  Constitution,  Article  II. 

333 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

that  the  idea  of  tithing  was  put  prominently  before  the 
men,  such  pamphlets  on  this  subject  as  those  of  Dr.  0. 
P.  Gifford,^^  Dr.  H.  C.  TrumbuU,^*  and  Rev.  H.  R. 
Calkins,^^  being  supplied  at  cost.  The  department  of 
finance  of  each  league  was  directed  to  secure  this  litera- 
ture in  large  quantities  and  to  see  that  every  man  in 
the  congregation  to  which  they  belonged  received  this 
class  of  reading. 

After  several  years  of  work  it  seemed  wise  to  the 
leaders  of  the  men  in  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
to  fall  in  with  the  general  tendency  of  Protestant  com- 
munions and  to  replace  the  Men's  ** League'*  with  a 
''Brotherhood."  Therefore,  in  the  year  already  named, 
at  a  convention  of  one  thousand  and  eighty  men  in  Pitts- 
burgh, the  title  United  Presbyterian  Brotherhood  was 
adopted,  and  the  watchword  for  the  ensuing  season  be- 
came: *' Twenty-five  thousand  souls  for  Christ.  A  mil- 
lion dollars  for  missions.''  Constitutions  were  drawn 
up  for  National  presbyterial  and  local  brotherhoods,  and 
for  the  brotherhood  Bible  class;  and  the  organization, 
already  powerful,  took  on  new  life. 

At  the  present  time  the  declared  object  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Brotherhood  is  thus  stated :  ' '  The  purpose 
of  the  brotherhood  shall  be  to  promote  the  spiritual  life 
and  development  of  the  men  of  the  congregation;  to 
bring  the  men  of  the  congregation  into  a  more  helpful 
fellowship  with  each  other  and  the  men  of  the  commu- 
nity; and  to  enlist  them  in  a  larger  and  more  active 
service  for  their  Church,  for  the  community,  and  for  the 
world. ' '  Committees  in  the  local  organization  are  three : 
executive,  membership,  and  program.  **That  the  pur- 
pose of  the  brotherhood  may  be  fulfilled,"  says  this  con- 
stitution, *' there  shall  be  the  following  departments  of 

88  "Tithing  a  Christian  Duty." 

^  "The  Law  of  the  Tithe." 

w  "The  Victory  of  Mary  Christopher." 

334: 


RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

service. ' '  Then  follow,  with  instruction,  prayer  and  per- 
sonal work,  Bible  study,  evangelism,  fellowship,  missions, 
work  among  young  men  and  boys,  *'and  other  depart- 
ments that  may  be  needed,  such  as  civics,  social  service, 
stewardship,  general  welfare  of  the  community,  church 
attendance.''^* 

In  one  of  its  publications  the  United  Presbyterian 
Brotherhood,  after  stating  its  National  objective,  more 
fully  interpreted  itself  in  this  way:  *' Positively,  The 
National  United  Presbyterian  Brotherhood  is  a  federa- 
tion of  all  men's  societies,  Bible  classes,  leagues,  clubs, 
of  all  brotherhoods,  etc.,  etc.,  organizations  of  whatever 
name,  in  the  denomination — that  adopt  the  above  de- 
clared object  of  the  brotherhood,  as  given  in  the  National 
Constitution,  and  that  make  written  application  to  the 
National  Executive  Council.  Each  organization  so  en- 
rolled is  expected  to  make  an  annual  voluntary  contri- 
bution to  help  defray  the  expenses  of  the  National 
Brotherhood.  Brotherhood  is  to  lead  to  'a  new  empha- 
sis on  men's  relation  to  the  Heavenly  Father;  a  new 
loyalty  to  the  Elder  Brother ;  a  new  cultivation  of  men 's 
inner,  deeper  lives ;  and  a  more  thoughtful,  far-reaching, 
sincerely  Christian  friendship  for  other  men.'  Nega- 
tively, it  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  brotherhood  to  over- 
throw or  displace  any  existing  men's  organization — 
although  the  name  *  Brotherhood'  is  suggested  as  an 
advantage.  "^^ 

The  success  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Brotherhood 
under  its  later  form  of  organization  has  been  very  en- 
couraging to  the  Church.  Its  undertakings  have  been 
advanced  by  a  well-arranged  magazine.  The  Men's  Rec- 
ord and  Missionary  Review,  issued  by  the  brotherhood 
**and  Ways  and  Means  Committee,  with  the  co-operation 
of  the  Boards  of  the  Church." 

*  "Model  Constitutions,"  pamptlet  issued  by  the  United  Presbyterian 
Brotherhood  of  North  America,  707  Publication  Building,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

""The  United  Presbyterian  Brotherhood  a  Key  to  An  Efficient 
Church." 

335 


XIX 

THE  MORE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

REPRESENTING  VARIOUS  CHRISTIAN  BODIES 

The  Baptist  Brotherhood  was  indorsed  at  the  General 
Convention  of  Baptists  of  North  America  at  Jamestown, 
Va.,  May  23,  1907.  Previous  to  this  a  federation  called 
the  New  England  Baptist  Brotherhood  had  been  formed 
at  Boston  in  January  of  the  same  year,  and  the  Northern 
Baptist  Convention  recognized  the  Baptist  Brotherhood 
as  a  department  of  its  work  at  Oklahoma,  May,  1908. 
In  its  first  ye^r  an  active  member  of  this  organiza- 
tion wrote:  '*The  men's  movement  among  Baptists  is 
profoundly  spiritual.  It  has  expressed  itself  in  a  renais- 
sance of  Bible  study.  Inspiration  and  method  came  from 
the  late  President  Harper ;  organization  and  administra- 
tion are  the  results  of  experience.  Hundreds  of  Bible 
classes  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  attest  the  vitality 
of  the  movement.  The  brotherhood  is  a  federation  of 
this  local  constituency.  Its  immediate  object  is  to  or- 
ganize this  force  for  united  action,  fill  it  with  an  en- 
thusiasm for  humanity,  and  lead  it  to  the  point  of  vision. 
Its  ultimate  purpose  is  the  application  of  the  principles 
of  Jesus  to  the  social,  civic,  and  industrial  life  of  to-day, 
the  re-enforcement  of  all  the  agencies  that  make  for 
spiritual  uplift  and  moral  welfare ;  the  spread  of  Christ's 
Kingdom  among  men,  and  their  enlistment  in  a  great 
forward  movement  for  the  evangelization  of  the  world 
and  the  brotherhood  of  man  in  Jesus  Christ.  It  bases 
its  appeal  not  upon  the  hope  of  reward — *Come  thou 
with  us,  and  we  will  do  thee  good,'  but  upon  the  op- 

336 


THE  MORE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

portunity  for  service — 'We  are  to  encamp  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  thou  shalt  be  to  ns  instead  of  eyes.'  "^ 

The  spirit  of  a  society  may  be  not  inaccurately  de- 
termined by  its  definite  expression  of  purpose.  This  is 
what  the  Northern  Baptist  Convention  said  about  its 
brotherhood:  *'The  purpose  of  the  brotherhood  shall  be 
to  promote  the  organization  of  men  in  our  Churches, 
congregations,  and  communities,  with  reference  to  spir- 
itual development,  good  fellowship,  social  betterment, 
civic  and  commercial  righteousness,  the  re-enforcement 
of  the  Church,  the  evangelization  of  the  world,  and  the 
brotherhood  of  man  in  Jesus  Christ. ''^ 

A  letter  which  was  circulated  in  1911  by  the  secre- 
tary of  the  Baptist  Brotherhood  contained  these  illu- 
minating sentences:  ''The  Baptist  Brotherhood  is  an 
affiliation  of  men's  leagues  and  Bible  classes  in  the  Bap- 
tist Churches  withm  the  territory  of  the  Northern  Bap- 
tist Convention.  Of  that  convention  it  is  the  child, 
repeatedly  recognized  and  recommended  to  the  favor  of 
the  denomination.  It  is  at  once  evident  that  every  or- 
ganization of  men  in  the  Baptist  Churches  under  the 
Northern  Baptist  Convention  should  be  affiliated  with 
the  brotherhood.  If  you  have  a  weak  and  doddering 
men's  organization,  or  none  at  all,  plan  in  advance  a 
progressive  movement.  Set  about  getting  your  men's 
society  on  a  -sound  basis  with  a  practical  objective  and 
some  worth-while  work  to  do.  Let  it  have  purpose  as 
well  as  name.  Make  it  frankly  religious ;  do  not  dodge 
the  thing  you  really  stand  for.  Make  it  vigorously  ag- 
gressive; let  good  citizenship,  missions,  organized  phi- 
lanthropy, work  for  boys,  personal  evangelism,  the 
Church,  be  ends  whose  furtherance  is  effectively  aimed 
at.     No  special  form  of  constitution  is  required.     You 

*Rev.  F.  E.  Marble,  D.  D.,  "Congregationalist  and  Christian  at 
Work,"   1908. 

2  The  Baptist  Brotherhood  of  th«  Northern  Baptist  Convention, 
"Constitution  and  By-laws,"  Headquarters,  168  Wabash  Avenue,  Chicago. 

22  337 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

may  be  a  men's  Bible  class  or  league;  you  may  suit  the 
form  of  work  to  the  exigencies  of  the  local  situation; 
but  you  surely  can  accept  the  Brotherhood  *s  declaration 
of  purpose. '** 

During  the  progress  of  its  history  the  Baptist 
Brotherhood  in  its  various  branches  met  with  problems 
similar  to  those  with  which  other  brotherhoods  have  had 
to  cope.  As  a  result  its  leaders  put  out  a  pamphlet 
which  contains  many  practical  suggestions.  **Very  dif- 
ferent methods  will  be  found  necessary  to  best  meet 
varying  conditions  in  separate  localities.  A  brotherhood 
can  not  succeed  unless  some  of  the  strongest  and  ablest 
men  of  the  Church  are  back  of  the  movement.  The  dis- 
tinguishing feature  of  successful  brotherhoods  has  been 
the  *  Inventory.'  The  inventory  is  a  business-like  way 
of  collecting  and  tabulating  information  as  to  just  what 
service  each  man  is  rendering  to  his  fellow-men  in 
Church,  unpaid  public  office,  charitable  organizations, 
philanthropic  enterprises,  etc.  Blanks  for  taking  this 
inventory  may  be  secured  from  headquarters.  The  in- 
Tentory  will  show  just  what  men  are  overworked  and 
ijust  who  need  to  be  given  something  to  do.  Experience 
shows  that  there  should  be  one  committee  for  each  ac- 
tivity upon  which  the  brotherhood  has  determined  to 
embark  as  well  as  on  the  activities  recommended  by  the 
National  brotherhood,  in  which  all  organizations  share. 
Experience  shows  that  it  is  wise  to  place  at  the  head  of 
a  committee  the  man  who  is  naturally  most  interested 
in  the  object  of  that  particular  committee.  Subdividing 
committee  work  pretty  closely  has  been  found  useful. 
It  has  not  proved  successful  to  resolve  the  whole  brother- 
hood into  a  committee  on  any  particular  thing.  In  re- 
ligion, as  elsewhere,  'anybody's  business  is  nobody's 
business. '    Some  brotherhoods  have  found  a  pledge  very 

"Charles  L.  Major,  Secretary. 

338 


THE  MORE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

helpful  as  tending  to  make  a  member  realize  that  he  has 
entered  into  a  solemn  agreement."* 

The  Congregational  Brotherhood  of  America  after  a 
very  brief  period  of  history  put  to  itself  the  question, 
'*Has  the  brotherhood  made  good?"  and  it  answered 
that  question  in  the  following  manner : 

*'Our  National  brotherhood  has  (1)  brought  a  new 
masculine  emphasis  to  the  Churches;  (2)  kept  central 
in  all  its  work  the  ideal  of  brotherhood;  (3)  permeated 
the  men's  club  movement  with  a  religious  purpose;  (4) 
greatly  increased  the  male  percentage  of  activity  and 
membership  in  the  Churches;  (5)  launched  the  depart- 
ment of  labor  and  social  service;  (6)  loyally  co-operated 
with  great  missionary  societies;  (7)  established  the  Na- 
tional Boys'  Brotherhood;  (8)  emphasized  the  element 
of  aggressiveness  in  the  denomination's  life;  (9)  cam- 
paigned with  the  laymen's  missionary  movement;  (10) 
joined  in  the  inauguration  of  and  will  participate  vig- 
orously in  *the  men  and  religion  forward  movement.' 
How  could  this  be  done  better  than  through  the  brother- 
hood?"^ 

As  in  case  of  all  the  other  denominational  brother- 
hoods, general  organization  of  the  men  of  the  Congre- 
gational Churches  of  America  was  preceded  by  many 
independent  societies  working  under  various  names  and 
with  diversified  plans  and  methods.  At  length,  in  1907, 
the  National  Council  of  Congregational  Churches  ap- 
pointed a  committee  of  twenty-nine  to  institute  a  brother- 
hood. In  April,  1908,  a  convention  was  held  at  Detroit, 
Mich.,  where  the  Congregational  Brotherhood  was  for- 
mally launched.  Other  conventions,  attended  by  repre- 
sentative men  in  considerable  numbers,  were  held  an- 
nually. 

*  Pamphlet,  "What  Is  a  Baptist  Brotherhood?"  Published  by  the 
American  Baptist  Publication  Society. 

•  ♦•The  Brotherhood  Era,"  May,  1911. 

339 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  purpose  wliich  animated  the  Congregational 
Brotherhood  in  its  local  organizations  was  declared  to 
be  *Ho  bring  the  men  of  this  community;  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Jesus  Christ  and  His  Church,  that  they  may; 
be  true  sons  of  God  and  real  brothers  of  their  fellow- 
men."  The  National  brotherhood  thus  represented  its 
object:  *'To  encourage  the  organization  of  men  in  the 
Congregational  Churches  and  unite  all  such  organiza- 
tions into  one  National  body,  so  that  we  may  labor  to- 
gether for  the  enlistment  of  men  in  the  service  of  Christ, 
for  increased  efficiency  in  the  local  Church,  for  larger 
denominational  vision  and  achievement,  for  the  further- 
ance of  righteousness,  and,  in  fellowship  with  all  other 
Christian  bodies,  for  the  promotion  of  the  Kingdom  of 
God  to  the  ends  of  the  earth.  "^ 

An  elaborate  plan  of  national,  state,  city,  local  and 
federated  organizations  was  offered  to  the  workers  of 
this  brotherhood.  At  the  second  convention,  held  in 
Minneapolis,  October,  1909,  one  of  the  speakers  declared 
that  *'the  fundamental  thought  in  this  brotherhood 
movement  is  service.  Nineteen  centuries  ago  the  Di- 
vine Master  taught  the  truth  that  greatness  consists  in 
service ;  it  was  spoken  in  an  age  of  supreme  selfishness, 
when  the  man  considered  great  was  the  one  to  whom  the 
largest  service  was  rendered.  Christ's  message,  however, 
is  slowly  and  surely  revolutionizing  the  world.  Through 
the  years  it  has  been  permeating  society  until  men  every- 
where are  recognizing  that  they  are  their  brothers' 
keepers,  and  that  a  self -centered  life  is  unworthy.  This 
is  especially  true  in  our  free  America.  To  quote  from 
another,  democracy  means  not,  *I  am  as  good  as  you 
are,'  but,  'You  are  as  good  as  I  am.'  This  is  the  spirit 
of  the  new  brotherhood  in  Christ."'' 

•"The  Relations  and  Functions  of  Brotherhood  Organization,"  Rev. 
Frank  Dyer,  pp.  6  and  13. 

'Samuel  B.  Oapen,  LL.  D.,  "The  Congregational  Brotherhood,** 
Brotherhood  Press,  Chicago,  p.  43. 

340 


THE  MORE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

Perhaps  no  better  comment  could  be  made  on  this 
statement  than  to  add  some  account  of  the  Better  Brat- 
tleboro  Campaign,  a  Vermont  outgrowth  of  the  spirit 
of  service  possessed  and  exercised  by  the  Congregational 
Brotherhood,  and  a  campaign  which  has  led  to  impor- 
tant deeds  in  other  places.  **In  many  respects,''  said 
the  Brotherhood  Era  in  describing  this  undertaking, 
**the  most  interesting  piece  of  work  the  National 
brotherhood  has  undertaken  is  the  campaign  just  com- 
pleted in  Brattleboro,  Vt.  It  has  aroused  widespread 
interest.  The  Better  Brattleboro  (Vermont)  Campaign 
grew  out  of  the  brotherhood  of  the  Centre  Congrega- 
tional Church.  A  prominent  layman  of  the  Church  gave 
a  dinner  to  the  brotherhood  at  which  one  hundred  and 
eighty  boys  and  men  were  present.  In  the  pastor's, 
study,  after  the  meeting,  the  plan  originated  for  a  cam- 
paign to  include  all  the  men  and  boys  of  the  town.  This 
campaign  idea  was  outlined:  'We  believe  in  our  own 
town,  in  its  progress,  its  prosperity,  and  its  improve- 
ment. Many  factors  go  to  make  a  town — good  schools, 
successful  business,  wholesome  recreation,  happy  homes, 
efficient  churches.  Our  campaign  stands  for  all  of  these. 
But  back  of  all  these  stands  the  manhood  of  the  town. 
Our  campaign  for  a  Better  Brattleboro  will  begin  with 
our  own  manhood.  The  men  of  to-day  and  the  men  of 
to-morrow  making  a  town  in  which  nothing  shall  hurt 
or  destroy,  but  in  which  everything  shall  bless  and  build 
up — this  is  our  ambition.  In  this  undertaking  all  our 
citizens  can  strike  hands  and  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder 
in  undivided  comradeship.  This  is  a  campaign  worthy 
of  our  manhood.  To  its  successful  prosecution  we  in- 
vite the  hearty  co-operation  of  every  man  and  boy  in 
Brattleboro.'  " 

The  local  ministers  and  churches  of  Brattleboro 
were  asked  to  join  the  movement,  and  the  Plan  of  Or- 
ganization included:  **The  Campaign  Committee — gen- 

341 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

eral  officers:  chairman,  vice-chairman,  secretary,  treas- 
urer ;  Executive  Committee — the  officers,  the  chairmen  of 
committees,  and  the  pastors  of  the  Brattleboro  and  West 
Brattleboro  Churches;  Church  Survey  Committee — ^to 
ascertain  by  actual  count  on  a  given  Sunday  morning, 
not  previously  announced,  the  percentage  of  males  in  at- 
tendance at  public  worship  in  all  the  churches ;  also  the 
exact  male  percentage  in  the  membership  of  the 
churches ;  the  results  not  to  be  announced  until  the  cam- 
paign begins;  Moral  Conditions  Committee — ^to  quietly 
investigate  the  institutions  and  life  of  the  town  to  dis- 
cover everything  that  may  be  injurious  to  the  moral  wel- 
fare of  the  people  and  to  recommend  a  course  of  action 
which  will  promote  public  righteousness;  School  Com- 
mittee— ^to  co-operate  with  the  school  authorities  in  mak- 
ing the  campaign  popular  and  effective  with  the  boys  of 
the  town;  Shop  Committee — ^to  establish  fraternal  rela- 
tions with  the  workingmen  of  the  town ;  to  secure  their 
co-operation  and  participation  in  all  the  meetings  of  this 
campaign;  Business  Men's  Committee — ^to  secure  the 
hearty  participation  of  the  business  and  professional  men 
of  the  town  in  the  campaign  by  their  presence,  active 
work,  and  the  closing  of  the  stores  as  much  as  possible 
evenings ;  Music  Committee — to  provide  organist,  cornet- 
ist,  leader,  soloists,  orchestra,  boys'  chorus,  and  men's 
chorus;  Invitation  Committee — by  visitation  of  every; 
home  and  public  place  in  the  town  to  see  that  every  man 
and  boy  in  Brattleboro  is  invited  to  participate  in  the 
campaign  and  to  attend  the  meetings ;  Publicity  Commit- 
tee— to  prepare  and  provide  all  the  printing  and  public- 
ity necessary  to  make  the  campaign  known  attractively 
in  Brattleboro  and  vicinity;  Ushers'  Committee — to  take 
charge  of  the  arrangements  at  all  the  public  meetings, 
for  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  those  attending,  the 
Beating,  the  offerings,  and  extending  the  welcome;  Fi- 
nance Committee — to  devise  ways  and  means  of  meeting 

342 


THE  MORE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

the  expenses  of  the  campaign  and  to  supervise  the  ex- 
penditure of  the  funds  raised. 

**The  Better  Brattleboro  Campaign  inaugurated  by 
the  churches  was  unique  in  conception  and  expression. 
It  was  interdenominational,  nonsectarian,  and  inclusive 
of  all  the  elements  in  the  community.  It  concerned  it- 
self with  every  phase  of  community  life.  The  purpose 
of  this  campaign  was  to  help  build  a  city  in  which  noth- 
ing shall  hurt  or  destroy,  but  in  which  everything  shall 
bless  and  build  up,  and  the  definite  results  attained  were 
these :  First,  plans  were  adopted  for  a  community  center 
for  young  men  and  boys,  to  cost  fifty  thousand  dollars, 
and  a  committee  of  representative  men  was  appointed 
to  carry  out  this  plan.  Second,  a  Better  Brattleboro 
Platform  was  adopted,  as  an  ideal  for  the  community, 
covering  ten  phases  of  community  life.  About  seven 
hundred  men  and  boys  pledged  themselves  to  this  com- 
munity ideal.  Third,  a  permanent  Better  Brattleboro 
League  was  organized  to  carry  on  the  work  begun  in 
this  series  of  meetings  and  to  give  constant  attention  to 
moral  and  social  needs  of  the  community.  Fourth,  it 
was  voted  unanimously  to  close  the  carriers'  window  of 
the  postoffice  on  Sunday,  giving  the  postoffice  employees 
their  Sundays  free  from  toil.  Fifth,  the  manhood  of 
the  community  was  lifted  to  higher  levels  by  having 
loftiest  ideals  of  individual  and  community  life  exalted 
and  by  having  religion  revealed  in  the  most  natural  and 
manly  fashion  as  something  which  is  related  to  all  life. 
Sixth,  a  new  civic  consciousness  was  created  by  bringing 
men  and  boys  together  from  all  walks  of  life  to  con- 
sider the  things  which  relate  to  the  common  interests  of 
the  community  life  and  by  pledging  themselves  to  work 
for  this  common  interest.  Seventh,  a  new  appreciation 
of  the  place  of  the  churches  in  a  community — the  com- 
munity does  not  exist  for  the  churches,  but  the  churches 
for  the  community.    The  fact  was  emphasized  that  the 

343 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

power  and  inspiration  for  all  that  is  best  in  community; 
life  comes  from  public  worship  of  God.  Eighth,  the 
Better  Brattleboro  Campaign  revealed  a  new  approach 
to  the  manhood  of  a  city.  It  proved  that  there  is  a  basis 
on  which  all  the  citizens  of  the  community,  irrespective 
of  class,  creed,  or  religious  conviction,  can  come  together 
and  work  for  a  civic  betterment.''^ 

This  account  may  have  been  somewhat  colored  by; 
the  enthusiasm  of  local  reporters,  but  it  is  given  here 
as  certainly  indicating  a  method  of  work  for  civic  bet- 
terment which  has  always  been  effective  when  consci- 
entiously and  ably  undertaken,  and  one  which,  if  it  were 
more  generally  attempted,  would  stamp  with  evident 
value  the  whole  brotherhood  movement. 

In  1908  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ 
was  formally  launched  at  Kansas  City,  Mo.  From  a  pub- 
lication of  this  organization  the  following  facts  are 
gleaned:  "The  present  movement  for  the  organization 
of  our  men  roots  itself  in  the  old  *  Business  Men's  As- 
sociation,' but  its  immediate  history  dates  from  a  com- 
mittee of  seven  men  appointed  at  New  Orleans  at  the 
National  convention  of  1908.  This  committee  met  at 
Kansas  City  on  November  2d,  where  it  organized.  Its 
first  activity  was  the  issuance  of  a  monthly  magazine, 
Christian  Men/'^ 

A  model  constitution,  adopted  early  in  the  history  of 
the  Brotherhood  of  Disciples  of  Christ,  and  later  revised, 
contained  a  preamble:  **"We,  the  undersigned  men,  in 
order  to  reap  the  fruits  of  fellowship  in  Christian  service 
and,  further,  to  express  the  unity  which  is  in  us  through 
Christ  Jesus,  and  for  the  purpose  of  extending  this  fel- 
lowship and  unity  by  means  of  co-operation  with  other 
similar  organizations  among  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  have 

«  "Tli«  Brotlierhood  Era,"  May,  1911. 

•'•A  Brief  History  of  the  Brotherhood  of  th«  Disciples  of  Christ." 

344 


THE  MORE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

adopted  the  following  Constitution  and  By-Laws  and 
subscribed  our  names  thereto." 

The  Brotherhood  Covenant,  presenting  ideals  for  all 
men  of  the  chapters,  contained  two  parts:  ** Section  1. 
*I  recognize  the  Fatherhood  of  God  and  the  Brotherhood 
of  Man,  and  believing  in  the  ideals  of  Christ  for  the  in- 
dividual and  for  society,  I  hereby  accept  them  for  my- 
self. I  agree  to  make  an  earnest  effort  to  observe  the 
Golden  Rule  in  all  my  dealings.  As  a  Brotherhood  man, 
I  promise  to  be  gentle  with  children,  chivalrous  toward 
women,  and  helpful  to  my  fellow-men;  to  advance  the 
Brotherhood  objects  and  uplift  the  Brotherhood  ideals.' 
Section  2.  'Pledge  to  Prayer  and  Personal  Evangelism. 
I  further  promise  to  pray  each  day  of  my  life  for  the 
extension  of  Christ's  Kingdom  and  the  union  of  God's 
people,  and  agree  to  make  a  personal  endeavor  each  week 
to  bring  at  least  one  man  under  the  sway  of  Church  and 
Brotherhood  influence.'  " 

Special  aims  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Disciples  of  Christ 
were  thus  set  forth:  **Men  for  the  ministry;  money  for 
missions;  men's  Bible  classes  in  every  Bible  school;  fel- 
lowship banquets;  brotherhood  help  to  the  brotherhood 
man  in  distress;  culture,  fellowship;  men  at  work  in 
church  and  Bible-school,  in  Endeavor  Society,  and 
prayer-meeting;  and  highest  standards  of  efficiency 
maintained  everywhere  throughout  the  Church." 

Under  the  head  of  committee  work  it  was  announced 
that  **for  purposes  of  efficiency  this  Brotherhood  shall 
maintain  and  operate  in  whole  or  in  part  the  following 
sub-organizations,  which  may  be  known  as  departments, 
sections  or,  simplicity  being  desired,  merely  as  commit- 
tees: Bible  study,  social,  civic,  visiting,  cultural,  mem- 
bership, fraternal  aid,  minute  men,  personal  evangelism, 
missions,  tenth  legion,  quiet  hour  or  devotional.  Com- 
rades of  Paul,  brotherhood  volunteers,  sports  and  ath- 

345 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

letics,  young  men,  boys.  Any  of  the  above  committees 
may  be  omitted  at  the  will  of  the  organization,  or  any 
other  permanent  committee  may  be  added  or  substituted. 
You  should  have  at  least  the  following  committees:  1. 
Program  and  social;  2.  Bible  school;  3.  Devotional  or 
prayer-meeting;  4.  Missionary;  5.  Boys'  work;  6.  Fra- 
ternal aid;  7.  Membership.  If  necessary,  omit  other 
committees,  but  appoint  at  least  these.  "^° 

By  action  taken  at  Portland,  Ore.,  in  July,  1911,  the 
following  individual  memberships  were  established :  Life 
membership,  $500 ;  centurion,  per  year  $100 ;  consulting, 
per  year,  $50 ;  sustaining,  $10 ;  advisory,  $5 ;  general,  $1. 
This  membership  is  for  persons  living  where  no  local 
chapter  exists,  and  its  revenues  are  used  in  support  of 
the  General  Brotherhood,  and  entitles  each  person  to 
receive  the  magazine  of  the  organization  and  its  other 
printed  matter.  Each  general  member  signs  the  cove- 
nant and  receives  a  card  of  identification.  The  Comrades 
of  Paul  are  a  company  of  members  of  the  brotherhood 
who  pledge  money  towards  a  fund  *'for  the  assistance 
of  young  men  who  are  preparing  themselves  for  the 
ministry  of  Jesus  Christ,  either  in  regular  church  serv- 
ice or  upon  the  mission  fields  at  home  or  abroad, ' ' 

The  effectiveness  of  the  influence  of  a  chapter  of  the 
Brotherhood  of  Disciples  of  Christ  in  at  least  one  aver- 
age congregation  is  illustrated  in  a  pamphlet,  **The 
Thing  "Wonderful,"  by  which  is  meant  the  Spirit  of 
Brotherhood,  and  which  enlisted  men  in  interested  Bible 
Study,  paid  a  church  debt,  helped  needy  families,  intro- 
duced a  new  good-will  among  the  men  of  the  church, 
and  brought  much  encouragement  to  the  pastor.^^ 
Among  the  advantages  to  the  individual  congregation 
which  it  is  believed  the  Brotherhood  of  Disciples  of 

""Model   Constitution,"   published  by  the  Brotherhood  of  Disciples 
of  Christ,  R.  A.  Long  Building,  Kansas  City,   Mo. 

"  "The  Thing  Wonderful,"  Vaughan  Dabney,  pp.  6  and  7. 

346 


THE  MORE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

Christ  lias  produced,  a  friend  has  named  a  **  spurring 
of  the  men  up  to  what  they  owe  God  in  holy  service," 
a  new  ** social  touch  of  the  men,"  and  a  bringing  out 
of  **the  business  sense.  "^^ 

The  year  1909  witnessed  the  organization  of  two  ad- 
ditional church  brotherhoods  in  evangelical  churches: 
the  Lutheran  Brotherhood  and  the  Otterbein  Brother- 
hood. In  the  same  year  the  National  League  of  Unita- 
rian Laymen  was  also  formed,  following  by  a  year  a  Na- 
tional League  of  Universalist  Laymen. 

Before  the  General  Synod  and  General  Council  of 
Lutheran  Churches  of  America  established  the  Lutheran 
Brotherhood,  men's  organizations  existed  so  widely  in 
the  local  churches  of  these  denominational  bodies  that 
probably  three  hundred  of  these  imstitutions  contained 
more  than  ten  thousand  membership.  This  was  no  small 
beginning  for  a  combined  movement,  and  while  many 
of  the  existing  societies  were  chiefly  engaged  in  Bible- 
class  work,  and  were  only  beginning  to  discharge  broader 
functions,  they  were  ready  for  a  forward  step. 

**  These  conditions  were  presented  in  a  memorial  to 
the  General  Synod  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  1907.  Fa- 
yorable  action  was  taken  and  a  committee  appointed  to 
take  steps  in  the  direction  proposed.  The  report  of  this 
committee  in  the  convention  of  1909,  giving  a  careful 
review  of  the  situation  and  recommending  immediate 
action,  was  favorably  received.  A  committee  of  ten  was 
appointed,  the  duty  of  which  was  to  inaugurate  and 
give  general  direction  to  the  movement.  It  was  given 
power  to  take  all  needed  steps  for  its  thorough  organi- 
zation, encourage  its  introduction  into  congregations, 
and  as  soon  as  practicable  effect  a  federation  of  all  Lu- 
theran men's  societies  into  a  general  organization  for 
the  entire  Church.  It  was  instructed  at  once  to  prepare 
a  form  of  constitution  and  such  other  literature  as  may 

^Dr.  Frank  Taimskge,  "Cliristian  Men,"  October,  1911, 

347 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

be  needed  for  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the 
movement  and  its  successful  introduction  into  the 
churches. '  '^^ 

The  constitution,  as  it  was  finally  adopted,  said :  *  *  The 
object  of  the  Brotherhood  shall  be :  1.  To  lead  men  into 
fellowship  with  Christ  and  the  Church;  2.  To  promote 
the  spiritual,  intellectual,  and  social  welfare  of  its  mem- 
bers; 3.  To  quicken  the  activity  and  increase  the  efifi- 
ciencj^  of  the  congregation  with  which  it  is  connected; 

4.  To  give  to  men  in  every  condition  of  life,  especially 
in  times  of  trial,  the  stimulus  of  Christian  comradeship 
and  the  inspiration  that  comes  from  association  with 
men  of  kindred  aims.  As  a  brotherhood  it  stands  for 
everything  that  tends  to  a  noble  manhood."^* 

In  the  plan  of  organization  ten  committees  were  pro- 
vided for  and  were  assigned  definite  duties.  These  were : 
**1.  A  Devotional  Committee,  which  shall  arrange  for 
appropriate  religious  exercises  for  each  regular  meeting 
of  the  brotherhood.  2.  A  Program  Committee,  which 
shall  arrange  an  interesting  and  profitable  program  for 
each  meeting.  3.  A  Membership  Committee,  which  shall 
seek  out  those  who  should  be  in  the  brotherhood,  consider 
all  applications  for  membership,  and  exercise  oversight 
over  the  membership  roll.  4.  A  Sunday  School  Commit- 
tee, which  shall  give  every  assistance  possible  to  the  Sun- 
day school  of  the  congregation,  especially  by  gathering 
men  into  Bible  classes  and  rallying  them  to  its  support. 

5.  A  Missionary  Committee,  which  shall  co-operate 
heartily  in  the  missionary  work  of  the  congregation,  en- 
couraging benevolent  giving  and  spreading  missionary 
intelligence  among  the  brotherhood.  With  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  pastor  it  may  lead  the  brotherhood  in 
various  forms  of  city  mission  work.     6.  A  Social  Com- 

^"The  Lutheran  Brotherhood,"  Lutheran  Publication  Society,  p.  54. 
"Ibid,  issued  from  headquarters,  Philadelphia,  p.  62. 

348 


THE  MORE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

mittee,  which  shall  promote  the  social  interests  of  the 
Lrotherhood  by  giving  a  cordial  welcome  to  men,  espe- 
cially strangers,  as  they  come  to  the  meetings,  and  at 
all  church  services.  It  shall  provide  for  such  social  gath- 
erings, in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  brotherhood, 
as  will  be  helpful.  7.  An  Athletic  Committee,  which 
shall  have  charge  of  the  physical  culture  department  of 
the  brotherhood.  It  shall  provide  such  athletic  sports 
as  are  of  unquestioned  propriety  and  which  will  tend 
to  the  moral  as  well  as  the  physical  development  of  the 
men  and  boys  of  the  congregation.  8.  A  Relief  Com- 
mittee, which  shall  visit  the  sick,  cheer  the  discouraged, 
aid  men  in  securing  employment,  and,  when  temptations 
come,  throw  around  the  tempted  brother  the  arms  of 
Christian  helpfulness.  9.  A  Committee  on  Junior  Work, 
which  shall  devise  ways  and  means  for  inspiring  and 
training  the  boys  of  the  congregation  to  lives  of  useful- 
ness. ^Whenever  practical,  it  shall  gather  them  into 
junior  chapters  of  the  brotherhood,  where  its  principles 
are  taught.  This  constitution,  modified  to  meet  their 
needs,  may  also  be  used  by  Junior  Brotherhoods.  10.  A 
Correspondence  and  Publicity  Committee,  which  shaU 
keep  in  touch  with  other  chapters  of  the  brotherhood, 
learning  from  them  of  successful  methods  of  work  and 
reporting  the  same.  It  shall  distribute  and  call  atten- 
tion to  books,  tracts,  and  papers  that  will  promote  useful 
information.  It  shall  prepare  and  distribute  cards  of 
invitation,  and  see  that  the  work  of  the  brotherhood  is 
kept  before  the  men  of  the  church  and  the  community. 
Other  standing  committees  in  harmony  with  the  spirit 
of  the  brotherhood  may  be  appointed  as  the  Executive 
Committee  may  think  necessary. "  ^^ 

The  badge  of  the  brotherhood  has  historic  interest  as 
representing  Luther's  coat-of-arms.  The  first  convention 
was  held  at  Washington  in  June,  1911.    The  governing 

"  "Th«  Lutheran  Brotherhood,"  cit.  sup.,  pp.  63-65. 

349 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

thought  was  *' Organization  for  Service,"  and  the  result 
of  the  meeting  was  instructive  and  inspiring  to  the  gath- 
erings of  Lutheran  men  which  were  held  since  that  date, 
and  was  formative  in  the  history  of  the  movement  con- 
cerning which  it  was  early  said:  ''The  latent  power  of 
our  Lutheran  laity  has  been  quickened  into  life,  and  we 
are  just  beginning  to  realize  what  a  great  sleeping  giant 
we  have  had  at  our  very  doors.  This  organization  has 
struck  a  sympathetic  and  vibrating  chord  in  our  congre- 
gations, and  the  awakened  manhood  of  our  churches  has 
responded  in  no  uncertain  tones.  One  of  the  strongest 
features  of  the  Brotherhood  Movement  is  that  it  appeals 
to  all  that  is  best  and  noblest  in  our  manhood.  It  rec- 
ognizes man's  desire  for  work.  It  gives  a  definite  aim 
to  his  highest  efforts.  It  brings  out  all  that  is  best 
in  his  nature,  and  sets  before  him  a  high  and  lofty  ideal. 
It  encourages  a  commendable  church  pride  and  promotes 
intelligent  and  loyal  service.  It  is  man's  work  for  man. 
It  opens  up  for  him  new  avenues  of  thought,  and  pro- 
vides work  for  him  that  is  worthy  of  his  highest  en- 
deavor. It  awakens  him  to  his  responsibility  and  sets 
his  duty  clearly  before  him."^^ 

In  1906  the  bishops  of  the  United  Brethren  Church 
appointed  a  committee  to  consider  the  formation  of  a 
men's  organization  for  the  denomination,  but  while  va- 
rious conventions  were  held  in  the  interest  of  the  new 
undertaking,  it  was  not  until  the  General  Conference  of 
1909  that  a  memorial  prepared  by  the  committee  could 
be  considered  and  official  action  taken.  The  outcome  was 
the  Otterbein  Brotherhood,  named  in  honor  of  Philip 
William  Otterbein,  the  founder  of  the  United  Brethren 
Church.i^ 

It  was  the  stated  purpose  of  the  Otterbein  Brother- 

*«  "The   Brotherhood    Promoting   an   Intelligent    and   Loyal   Lutheran 
Laity,"  W.  L.  Armiger. 

"See  "Life  of  Otterbein,"  by  Dmry. 

350 


THE  MORE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

hoad  *'to  challenge  every  man  to  appreciate  what  is  his 
responsibility  as  a  Christian,  and  then  quicken  him  to 
fulfill  that  obligation.  To  promote  and  stimulate  men's 
loyalty  to  the  church  and  to  every  organized  activity 
in  and  through  the  church  for  the  doing  of  all  the 
things  that  the  church  ought  to  do."  Provision  was 
made  for  a  general,  a  conference,  and  a  local  brother- 
hood. Of  the  general  brotherhood  *'the  legislative  and 
executive  authority  is  in  the  Board  of  Control  of  Sunday 
School,  Brotherhood,  and  Young  People's  Work,  as 
authorized  by  the  General  Conference." 

The  organization  proclaimed  that  "objectives  of 
service  of  the  General  and  of  the  Conference  Brother- 
hoods are:  1.  Recognition  of  men.  2.  Organized  Bible 
classes  for  men  and  young  men  in  every  Sunday  school 
in  the  Conference.  3.  Increasing  the  efficiency  of  indi- 
vidual men's  classes  and  other  men's  organizations  by 
the  brotherhood  ideals  of  service.  4.  Enlistment  of  men 
in  the  Christian  life  and  in  all  conference  and  commu- 
nity enterprises  calling  for  the  co-operation  of  the  Chris- 
tian masculine  forces." 

In  the  publications  of  the  Otterbein  Brotherhood  a 
painstaking  and  well-nigh  complete  program  of  work 
was  given  under  the  headings,  ** Brotherhood  Features," 
*'Local  Church  Work,"  ''Social  Service,"  ''Boys' 
Work,"  and  "Missionary."^®  The  first  two  of  these 
divisions  are  here  reproduced  as  being  typical  and  most 
suggestive.  As  brotherhood  features,  "explain  and  ad- 
vertise the  brotherhood,  its  purposes  and  methods,  and 
endeavor  to  interest  men  who  heretofore  have  found  lit- 
tle to  attract  or  occupy  them  in  the  church.  Organize 
and  use  a  band  or  orchestra.  Co-operate  with  local  fra- 
ternal orders  in  relief  work.  Keep  helpfully  close  to 
men  who  are  trying  to  break  with  bad  habits  and  evil 

"Pamphlet,    "Men  at  Work,'*   Walter  L.  Bunger,  published  by  the 
Board  of  Control,  United  Brethren  Building,  Dayton,  0. 

351 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

environments.  Help  men  to  find  lodgings,  friends,  work, 
and  better  positions.  Work  out  and  inaugurate  practical 
plans  for  fraternalizing  the  church.  Make  masculine 
comradeship  and  good  fellowship  prominent  at  all  times. 
Make  the  church  a  place  where  its  members  may  look 
for  help  and  friendship  in  times  of  sickness,  distress, 
bereavement,  and  misfortune.  Help  to  bring  the  church 
up  to  the  place  where  it  will  offer  to  the  artisan,  me- 
chanic, and  laboring  man  better  privileges  than  those  he 
seeks  in  his  fraternal  order.  Honor  deceased  members 
by  floral  offerings,  and  hold  memorial  services.  Dis- 
cover and  report  cases  of  sickness;  visit  the  sick.  Give 
temporary  relief  to  poor  and  distressed.  Especially, 
give  friendly  counsel  to  the  unfortunate.  Give  special 
attention  to  strangers  in  the  community.  Advertise  the 
church  so  it  can  be  found  by  visitors  to  your  city.  !Wel- 
come  visitors  to  the  brotherhood  and  Bible  class  meet- 
ings. Endeavor  to  enroll  every  man  who  can  help  or 
be  helped  by  the  brotherhood.  Keep  helpfully  in  touch 
with  all  the  members.  Arrange  initiation  and  installa- 
tion ceremonies.  Get  up  entertaining  programs,  such  as 
mock  trial,  symposiums,  and  ladies'  night.  Have  at 
least  an  annual  banquet  for  all  the  men  of  the  church 
and  community.  Promote  men's  dinners,  to  which  non- 
churchmen  of  the  neighborhood  are  invited.  Encourage 
volunteer  preaching  upon  the  part  of  laymen  who  have 
the  ability.  Discover  new  men  to  attend  conventions  and 
conferences.  Help  to  pay  their  way.  Have  a  meeting 
for  fathers  about  boys.  Hold  down-town  noon-day 
luncheons  for  men  for  social  and  church  interests.  Keep 
the  general  office  informed  as  to  change  of  officers.  Send 
in  information  of  general  interest  for  publication  in  the 
Telescope  and  Watchword.  By  all  means  see  that  your 
men,  whom  you  want  to  be  intelligent,  enthusiastic,  and 
active  members  are  subscribers  to  the  denominational 

352 


THE  MOEE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

papers.    Have  a  framed  charter  on  the  wall  of  the  meet- 
ing-place." 

Under  the  head  of  '^ Local  Church  Work''  it  was 
urged  by:  the  founders  of  the  Otterbein  Brotherhood: 
*'Be  friends  and  comrades  of  the  minister.  *Pray  for 
the  only  man  in  your  church  who  has  no  pastor. '  Brace 
up  the  prayer-meeting.  Do  *  Scout'  duty  for  the  pastor. 
Assist  the  pastor  in  all  his  plans  of  work  and  worship. 
Print  best  sermons  of  pastor.  Boost  church  attendance 
by  invitation  and  advertisement.  Visit  hotels,  boarding 
and  lodgiQg  houses,  and  invite  men  to  attend  church. 
Get  men  who  are  on  the  church  'side  lines'  into  the 
game.  Organize  the  church  on  some  comprehensive 
plan,  so  that  the  power  of  the  manhood  of  the  church 
may  be  employed  to  the  greatest  advantage.  Give  per- 
sonal labor  to  repair  or  improve  church  building.  Print 
a  church  bulletin.  Usher  at  church  services.  Put  into 
church  management  business  methods  and  system.  As- 
sume responsibility  for  the  financial  support  of  the 
church.  Advertise  in  attractive  and  modem  ways  the 
church  and  church  services.  Dignify  the  church  servicei 
by  a  large  attendance  of  men.  Keep  church  statistics 
as  to  attendance,  etc.  Attract  men  into  the  church  by 
showing  them  that  the  church  has  a  program  for  eflS- 
cient  work  under  intelligent  leadership.  Quicken  the 
zeal  of  the  newcomer  and  involve  him  by  giving  him  a 
definite  job  suited  to  his  taste  and  ability.  Plan  an 
every-day  use  and  broader  use  of  the  church  and  its 
equipment.  By  definite  methods  win  men  to  church 
membership.  Inspire  devotion  and  loyalty  to  the 
church.  Furnish  substitute  teachers  for  the  Sunday 
school.  Actively  co-operate  with  the  Sunday  school  su- 
perintendent and  other  officers  of  the  church.  Organize 
a  brotherhood  Bible  class  in  the  school.  Urge  and  assist 
in  organizing  brotherhood  Bible  classes  in  other 
23  353 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

churches.  Organize  teachers'  training  class.  Conduct 
Sunday  evening  meetings,  and  help  to  boost  them.  Con- 
duct shop  meetings.  Hold  services  and  man  Sunday 
schools  in  unchurched  sections  of  the  city  and  country. 
Conduct  business  men's  noon  meetings  down  town.  Or- 
ganize a  continuous  man-to-man  evangelistic  campaign. 
Hold  open-air  evangelistic  services.  Visit  prisons,  hos- 
pitals, almshouses.  Organize  and  conduct  personal 
workers'  training  class.  Have  a  'secret  service'  group. 
Arrange  for  appropriate  and  sincere  observance  of  the 
Week  of  Prayer.  Organize  a  prayer  band  to  meet  with 
the  pastor  before  the  services  of  Sunday.  Establish 
noon-day  Bible  classes  in  shops,  stores,  etc.  Promote  and 
assist  general  evangelistic  campaigns." 

That  much  of  the  work  indicated  in  the  literature 
and  recommended  by  the  officers  has  been  actually  done 
in  various  places  by  the  Otterbein  Brotherhood  reliable 
reports  attest,  and  the  family  of  Church  brotherhoods 
was  strengthened  by  this  accession. 

Within  fifty  years  all  Protestant  Churches  as  well 
as  the  Church  of  Rome  have  organized  their  men  for  a 
more  systematic  and  aggressive  advancement  of  Christ's 
Kingdom.  If  this  had  not  been  done,  Christianity  would 
before  long  have  been  outclassed  in  the  competitive 
struggle  of  the  world's  interests.  At  the  present  time, 
as  the  concluding  chapter  of  this  book  abundantly 
proves,  a  larger  number  of  men  are  taking  their  place 
in  Christian  activities  than  has  been  the  case  for  many 
centuries.  Except  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  when 
it  must  be  admitted  that  Christianity  was  more  martial 
than  spiritual,  and  when  the  ambitions  and  passions  of 
men  were  much  more  deeply  stirred  than  were  their 
moral  aspirations,  never  were  such  armies  enlisted  un- 
der the  banners  of  Jesus  Christ  as  are  now  mustered 
into  His  service.    To  what  event?    To  new  and  greater 

354 


THE  MORE  RECENT  CHURCH  BROTHERHOODS 

triumphs,  let  it  be  hoped — triumphs  of  virtue  over  vice, 
of  justice  over  oppression,  of  love  over  lust  of  gain. 
But  first  must  come  a  deeper  sense  of  need  and  of  peril 
through  sin,  yes,  and  that  high  courage  which  will  have 
honor  or  death,  for  it  is  still  true,  as  Mazzini  said,  that 
''the  angels  of  martyrdom  and  victory  are  brothers." 


355 


XX 

LAYMEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  ANI5  CLUBS 

MEN'S  SOCIETY  MISCELLANY. 

Although  the  organization  period  of  the  past  half  cen- 
tury banded  together  vast  numbers  of  independent  or 
federated  groups  of  Christian  men  in  the  Protestant 
Churches,  many  of  these  still  exist,  and  not  a  few  which 
have  merged  into  various  Church  brotherhoods  deserve 
remembrance  for  their  ideals  and  good  works.  In  order 
to  complete  the  survey  of  the  united  efforts  of  Christian 
men,  the  history  of  typical  societies  of  this  kind  which 
have  not  been  mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  volume  will 
be  briefly  considered. 

For  three  hundred  years  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
and  in  Great  Britain,  and  from  Colonial  days  in  Amer- 
ica, local  organizations  in  various  Churches,  as  has  been 
previously  stated,  endeavored  to  serve  the  various  re- 
ligious and  social  needs  of  men.  A  number  of  these 
were  temperance  societies,  others  were  Bible  or  literary 
groups,  some  were  social  or  philanthropic,  and  quite  a 
number  were  related  to  special  church  work,  as  for  ex- 
ample the  care  and  development  of  the  Sunday  night 
service.  Unfortunately  few  records  of  the  earlier  inde- 
pendent societies  have  been  preserved,  those  who  organ- 
ized and  maintained  them  having  been  intent  merely  on 
the  needs  of  the  hour  and  the  practical  results  to  be 
obtained. 

It  has  been  seen  that  the  German  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Associations,  whose  origin  was  somewhat  earlier 
than  those  of  Great  Britain  and  America,  were  at  first 

356 


LAYMEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

i' 

purely  local  societies  operating  within  the  individual 
churches,  and  that  to  this  time  the  Christlicher  Jiing- 
lingsverein  is  rather  a  federation  of  independent  bodies 
than  an  organic  union/  Notation  has  also  been  made 
of  the  fact  that  various  local  and  connected  societies 
preceded  the  establishment  in  America  of  the  very  suc- 
cessful Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 

At  various  times  organizations  largely  or  wholly  of 
men  were  formed  in  the  Churches  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  internal  reforms  in  doctrines  or  practices, 
or  for  the  teaching  and  development  of  new  ideas  and 
methods.  Germany  afforded  a  typical  instance  of  this 
in  the  Protestantenverein,  or  Protestant  Association. 
This  society  was  founded  in  1863  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main.  Its  promoters  were  clergymen,  university  pro- 
fessors, and  publicists  who  desired  to  further  the  cause 
of  liberalism  in  the  German  Protestant  State  churches. 
It  was  felt  by  these  men  that  German  Protestantism, 
still  jealously  divided  by  Calvinistic  and  Lutheran  con- 
tentions, was  creed-bound,  obscurantist,  and  opposed  to 
inquiry  and  progress.  The  association  sought  to  prevent 
the  growth  of  prelacy  and  of  clericalism  in  the  Protes- 
tant Church,  and  it  opposed  also  the  claims  of  the  pa- 
pacy. Both  a  general  Protestantenverein  and  sectional 
unions  were  formed.  The  conservative  majority  opposed 
this  party  within  the  Church  and  restricted  the  oppor- 
tunities of  its  members.  Through  the  influence  of  the 
association,  however,  the  government  in  1879  passed  the 
May  or  Falk  laws,  designed  to  destroy  Eoman  Catholi- 
cism and  to  reorganize  the  Protestant  State  Church,  but 
which  the  policies  of  party  leaders  later  repealed.  The 
more  reserved  and  orthodox  influences  have  proven  to 
be  stronger  than  those  of  the  Protestantenverein,  which 
has,  nevertheless,  not  failed  to  affect  powerfully  the  re- 
ligious thought  and  life  of  Germany,  and  which  has  pre- 

1  Supra,  p.  221. 

357 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

sented  to  other  bodies  a  method  of  propagating  the  views 
of  a  Church  minority.  The  Church  of  England  presents 
several  instances  of  somewhat  similar  combinations  to 
effect  a  spiritual  or  ecclesiastical  purpose  within  the  par- 
ent body,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic and  of  other  communions. 

When  the  Church  undertook  to  use  laymen  in  sub. 
clerical  functions,  societies  began  to  be  established  to 
conserve  the  interests  of  these  men,  who  of  course  con- 
stituted Christian  brotherhoods  by  virtue  of  their  com- 
mon tasks  and  relationships.  This  fact  appeared  in 
connection  with  the  accounts  of  Roman  Catholic  orders, 
and  what  was  said  is  true  of  Anglican  lay  readers.  The 
Methodist  Churches  of  Great  Britain  and  of  America 
enlisted  in  their  work  large  numbers  of  local  preachers, 
and  in  the  United  States  the  National  Association  of  Lo- 
cal Preachers  was  formed  in  1858  in  New  York  City. 
A  chief  charge  of  this  body  was  the  care  of  Taylor  Uni- 
versity, located  at  Upland,  Ind.,  and  named  in  honor 
of  the  missionary  bishop  William  Taylor.  A  class  of 
lay-ministers  of  much  earlier  date  and  of  considerable 
historical  interest  were  **The  Men"  of  the  religious  com- 
munities of  Northern  Scotland.  These  persons,  in  later 
times  confined  mainly  to  the  Free  Church,  were  for- 
merly much  more  numerous  than  is  the  case  at  present, 
and  in  the  parts  of  the  Scotch  Highlands  where  the 
Gaelic  language  prevails  they  have  had  much  promi- 
nence. A  scanty  supply  of  regular  preachers  and  the 
necessities  of  large  and  scattered  parishes  gave  rise  to 
an  order  of  persons  whose  piety,  gifts  in  prayer  and  in 
exhortation,  and  strong  personalities  led  them  to  gain  a 
repute  for  godliness  whereby  they  passed  by  common 
consent  and  without  formalities  into  the  select  number 
called  The  Men.  The  lyke-wakes  gave  them  sufficient 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  their  powers  of  petition, 
as  did  the  meetings  conducted  for  Christian  fellowship. 

358 


LAYMEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

On  Friday  before  communion,  services  are  held  in  prep- 
aration for  the  sacrament,  and  by  reason  of  the  exercises 
in  the  charge  of  these  laymen,  this  occasion  came  to  be 
popularly  called  *  *  Men 's  Day. ' '  The  Men  often  assumed 
a  special  garb,  and  they  received  a  reverence  which  led 
in  exceptional  instances  to  spiritual  pride  and  to  acts 
of  willfulness.  Generally  speaking,  however,  the  labors 
of  these  Presbyterian  counterparts  of  the  lay  preachers 
of  Wyckliffe  and  of  Wesley  tended  to  keep  spiritual 
religion  alive  in  places  neglected  by  careless  ministers, 
or  which  were  unfurnished  with  an  adequate  supply  of 
gospel  ordinances,  and  only  the  improvement  of  condi- 
tions in  modern  times  sufficed  to  lessen  the  number  and 
activity  of  these  useful  leaders.^ 

Coming  to  the  consideration  of  local  organizations  of 
churchmen  engaged  in  parish  work,  it  may  be  stated  that 
Professor  Cressey  assembled  a  list,  which,  however,  is 
of  necessity  very  incomplete,  but  which  contained  typ- 
ical names  of  such  brotherhoods.^  During  the  last  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  many  Sunday  Evening  Clubs 
were  formed  in  the  churches,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
build  up  the  constituency  of  the  second  service  **by 
rendering  all  possible  assistance  to  the  pastor,  as  by  invi- 
tations, advertising,  and  kindred  efforts,  the  sermon  be- 
ing usually  shortened  in  order  to  allow  for  special  mu- 
sical features."  These  societies  were  usually  composed 
of  the  younger  men  of  the  church  and  Sunday  school, 
and  not  infrequently  they  succeeded  in  greatly  strength- 
ening the  attendance  and  the  influence  of  the  Sunday 
night  meeting.  Of  the  churches  which  made  history 
through  work  of  this  nature,  a  few  are  cited  as  illus- 
trative. The  Austin  (Illinois)  Presbyterian  Club  es- 
tablished thirteen  committees:  worship,  music,  printing 
and  advertising,  ushers,  invitation,  social  and  entertain- 

2Auld,   "Ministers  and  Men  of  the  Far  North,"  p.  142  ff. 
0  ««The  Church  and  Yoting  Men,"  pp.  135-148. 

359 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

ment,  finance,  membership,  decoration,  coat  and  hat, 
choristers,  census,  executive.  The  society  at  the  Con- 
gregational Church,  Burlington,  Iowa,  built  up  **a  per- 
manent congregation  varying  from  six  hundred  to  a 
thousand."  The  Sprague  Memorial  Presbyterian 
Church,  Tacoma,  found  that  the  services  sustained  by 
the  club  were  *' always  evangelistic."  The  Congrega- 
tional Church,  Platteville,  "Wis.,  had  men  **work  for  the 
success  of  the  services  who  were  doing  nothing  before, 
perhaps  not  even  attending."  The  First  Congregational 
Church,  Appleton,  Wis.,  built  up  a  club  membership 
■which  at  the  end  of  five  years  was  five  hundred  and 
sixty,  and  which  increased  the  Sunday  night  service 
from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  six  hundred  and  fifty, 
**and  in  other  ways  helped  to  make  the  Church  a  house 
of  life."  At  the  Oak  Park  (Illinois)  Presbyterian 
Church  the  evening  audience  doubled.* 

The  name  Men's  Club  was  long  popular  in  many 
churches,  and  while  the  modern  tendency  in  many  de- 
nominations is  away  from  the  club  idea,  local  and  fed- 
erated organizations  of  this  name  are  widely  known. 
National  conferences  of  church  clubs  have  been  held, 
but  in  the  main  these  organizations  have  been  independ- 
ent.^ Among  the  churches  whose  Men's  Clubs  have  at 
one  time  or  another  been  famous  a  few  may  be  named : 
Westminster  Presbyterian  Chiareh,  Buffalo;*  Rich- 
mond Avenue  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  Buffalo; 
Plymouth  Congregational  Church,  Lincoln,  Neb. ;  Mark- 
ham  Memorial  Presbyterian  Church,  St.  Louis;  Euclid 
Avenue  Baptist  Church,  Cleveland;  First  Congrega- 
tional Church,  Jersey  City;  Judson  Memorial  Baptist 

*Mead,  op.  cit.,  devotes  chapter  ix  to  "The  Men's  Sunday  Evening 
Club." 

''"The  Living  Church  Annual"  contains  information  about  the  Na- 
tional Conference  of  Chxirch  Clubs  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 

•A  somewhat  full  account  of  the  history  of  this  club  is  found  in 
Mead,  op.  cit.,  pp.  154-156. 

360 


LAYIVIEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

Church,  New  York.  Several  hundred  other  churches 
might  be  cited  as  having  had  successful  experience  with 
Men's  Clubs,  and  these  societies  have  often  done  exceed- 
ingly practical  work.  For  example,  the  Lincoln  (Ne- 
braska) Club,  above  mentioned,  not  only  took  charge  of 
the  evening  services  of  the  church,  but  some  years  since 
combined  with  other  clubs  to  vote  out  the  saloons.  '*We 
saw  to  it  that  every  voter  in  our  section  of  the  city 
who  was  favorable  to  no  license  got  out  and  voted. ''^ 
The  Westminster  Club  of  Buffalo  established  and  main- 
tained a  social  settlement,  known  as  Westminster  House, 
and  which  became  a  very  effective  adjunct  to  the  work 
of  the  church.  Many  clubs  have  established  reading- 
rooms,  gymnasiums,  accident  and  sick  benefit  societies 
and  burial  funds,  employment  bureaus,  literary  societies, 
and  other  useful  adjuncts.  At  one  time  the  Euclid 
Avenue  Club,  Cleveland,  above  mentioned,  had  a  list  of 
one  thousand  men  to  whom  invitations  and  other  litera- 
ture were  sent  by  mail.  Loan  associations,  fresh-air 
funds,  military  organizations  with  drills,  lectures,  and 
banquets  characterize  Men's  Club  life,  which  is  apt  to 
be  rather  social  than  spiritual  or  fraternal,  constituting 
in  at  least  exceptional  instances  a  source  of  weakness 
rather  than  of  strength  to  the  religious  influence  of  the 
Church. 

One  reason  for  the  rapid  displacement  of  Men's 
Clubs  in  most  of  the  Protestant  Churches  was  stated  at 
about  the  time  of  the  beginning  of  this  movement  in  a 
paper  in  The  Brotherhood  Movement  by  Judge  J.  N. 
Haymaker  of  Wichita,  Kan.,  a  prominent  member  of 
the  Brotherhood  of  Disciples  of  Christ,  who  said:  **I  be- 
lieve every  organization  should  be  affiliated  with  a  head, 
or  central,  organization.  The  advantages  of  such  con- 
nection are  obvious.  The  leaders  connected  with  this 
central  or  head  organization  are  men  of  education,  lead- 

^  Reported  by  L.  J.  Marsh,  "Brotherhood  Era,"  1909. 

361 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

ers  of  thought,  spiritually-minded  and  enthusiastic  in 
their  work,  who  devote  all  their  time,  talent,  and  energy 
to  it.  These  men  not  only  think  and  plan  for  the  suc- 
cess of  the  work,  but  in  addition  they  come  in  contact 
with  live,  active  men  devoted  to  the  same  line  of  work 
throughout  the  country,  and  are  constantly  getting  new 
ideas,  suggestions,  and  points  of  information  from  them. 
They  are  peculiarly  fitted  and  prepared  for  this  work. 
There  should  be  a  vital  connection  between  the  local  or- 
ganization and  this  central  or  head  organization."^ 

The  exclusively  spiritual  character  of  the  Brother- 
hood of  St.  Andrew  leaves  room  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  for  a  broader  organization,  and  in  that 
communion  the  Men's  Club  is  considered  a  necessary  aid 
to  church  work.  The  strong  organizations  of  this  kind 
in  St.  George's  and  St.  Bartholomew's,  New  York, 
equipped  with  modern  club  features  of  the  latest  type 
are  followed  more  or  less  completely  in  the  institutionai 
undertakings  in  many  other  parishes  and  cities.  An 
editorial  in  the  Waterbury  American  gives  an  instructive 
estimate  of  the  value  of  this  work:  ** Winter  is  the  sea- 
son when  the  men's  Church  club  is  very  much  in  evi- 
dence. Either  it  is  giving  a  dinner,  or  it  is  holding  a 
meeting  for  important  business,  or  it  is  listening  to  an 
attractive  and  celebrated  speaker  from  outside  the  town, 
or  it  is  engaging  in  a  social  of  some  kind  or  description. 
Everybody's  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  at  this 
season,  at  least,  the  Church  club  is  a  very  active  and 
live  organization.  There  is  no  question  that  the  Church 
club  does  fill  an  important  place  in  the  Church  activities 
of  the  present  day.  It  brings  together  a  lot  of  men, 
as  men,  for  purposes  of  acquaintance  and  mutual  friend- 
liness even  if  it  does  nothing  directly  in  the  matter  of 
stimulating  the  religious  life.  It  attaches  men  to  the 
Church,  makes  them  feel  that  the  Church  is  in  some 

'Ilei>orted  in  *'<M«thodist  Men." 


LAYMEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

part  their  own.  Among  many  of  these  it  arouses  a  cer- 
tain feeling  of  obligation  to  take  part  in  regular  Church 
activities  and  to  give  to  the  Church  some  of  their  time 
and  thought.  It  does  not  always  follow  that  the  mem- 
bers of  a  men's  club  will  be  seen  in  the  pews  with  reg- 
ularity. A  good  many  such  club  members  play  golf  on 
Sundays  more  frequently  than  they  hear  sermons.  But, 
nevertheless,  they  do  go  to  Church  oftener  than  they 
would  probably  except  for  the  Church  club,  and  they 
have  their  attention  called  to  religion  in  a  personal  way, 
something  that  otherwise  they  might  absolutely  lose 
thought  of.  Many  Church  clubs  lead  to  brotherhoods. 
This  is  the  modern  way  of  making  practical  the  religious 
life.  There  is  no  question  that  a  man  can  be  a  very 
active  business  man,  and  at  the  same  time  do  not  a  little 
to  promote  practical  religion  among  his  friends,  ac- 
quaintances, and  all  others  whom  he  may  chance  to  meet, 
businesswise  or  socialwise.  In  so  far  as  Church  club 
life  leads  to  this  kind  of  inspiration  among  men  of  busi- 
ness, men  of  society,  men  of  the  world,  it  is  doing  a  great 
work.  These  are  the  men  who  are  needed  in  the  Church 
to-day.  Such  a  result  is,  of  course,  ideal.  But  in  any 
case  the  men's  Church  club  does  meet  a  long-felt  want, 
a  gathering-place  for  the  men  of  the  Church,  whether 
they  are  more  or  less  devoted.  For  even  this  interest 
in  the  Church  does  create  a  condition  of  mind  and  atti- 
tude that  furthers  a  more  general  interest  among  men  in 
the  Church  and  in  its  work."* 

Many  other  names  may  be  cited  of  local  organizations 
which  were  men's  clubs  or  brotherhoods,  and  which 
were  useful  in  their  time.  A  good  part  of  these  were 
later  merged  into  the  general  organizations,  and  as  few 
of  them  present  features  not  covered  by  societies  which 
have  been  treated  they  are  mentioned  merely  to  add 
comprehensiveness  to  this  survey  of  Christian  men's 

•Reproduced  in  "St.  Andrew's  Cross,"  April,  1911. 

363 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

wotk.  Dr.  Reisner,  in  one  of  his  books  described  the 
''Parish  Brotherhood"  at  the  First  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  New  Haven;  the  ** Men's  Association"  of  the 
Brick  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York,  and  the  *' Men's 
Prayer  Circle"  of  Boyle  Heights  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  Los  Angeles/*^  Dr.  Mead  represented  the  work 
of  the  *' Men's  Social  Club"  of  Grace  Episcopal  Church, 
New  York.^^  Professor  Cressey  listed  a  ' '  Men 's  Union, ' ' 
Dudley  Street  Baptist  Church,  Boston;  ** Men's  Guild," 
Central  Congregational  Church,  Brooklyn;  "Men's 
League,"  Broadway  Tabernacle,  New  York,  of  which 
several  other  important  societies  are  cited  by  Mead; 
"Young  Men's  Club,"  St.  Matthew's  Lutheran  Church, 
Philadelphia,  and  First  Baptist  Church,  St.  Paul; 
"Young  Men's  Fraternity,"  Ashland  Avenue  Baptist 
Church,  Toledo;  "Young  Men's  Social  Union,"  First 
Baptist  Church,  Lansing;  "Young  Men's  Christian 
Brotherhood,"  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  Belvidere, 
111.;  "Gideon's  Band,"  First  Baptist  Church,  Shenan- 
doah, Iowa;  "Young  Men's  Christian  League,"  Memo- 
rial Baptist  Church,  Los  Angeles.^^  In  several  places 
Brotherhoods  of  St.  James  and  of  St.  John  have  existed, 
and  have  been  leagued  together.  Very  few  possible  com- 
binations of  men's  society  names  seem  to  have  been 
overlooked,  but  it  is  doubtless  better  that  the  period  of 
consolidation  of  societies  and  of  co-ordination  of  efforts 
should  have  intervened  to  bring  the  men's  work  of  the 
churches  first  into  denominational  unity,  and  then  into 
federations  for  common  purposes  which  have  been  prov- 
ing important  and  indicative  of  greater  achievements 
in  the  not  distant  future. 

Before  this  type  of  local  men's  societies  is  passed,  a 
more  adequate  presentation  should  be  made  of  the  va- 

"  '  'Workable  Plans  for  Wide-Awake  Churches, ' '  Christian  F.  Reisner, 
D.  D.,  chapter  ix,    "Winning  and  Working  the  Men." 

"  Op.  cit.,  p.  158.  "  Op.  cit.,  pp.  137-139. 

364 


LAYMEN'S  UNIO'NS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

rious  benefit  associations  in  the  churches.  The  Brother- 
hood of  St.  Paul  established  a  number  of  mutual  benefit 
branches  which  were  taken  over  by  the  Methodist 
Brotherhood.  Among  the  most  successful  of  these  were 
the  branches  at  Riverside,  Buffalo;  University  Avenue, 
Syracuse;  and  Central  Church,  Detroit.  The  Pilgrim 
Fraternal  Association  in  Pilgrim  Congregational 
Church,  Dorchester,  was  established  in  1893.  A  report 
made  in  1908  showed  that  during  the  first  fifteen  years 
of  its  history  this  organization  paid  all  the  benefits  due 
and  accumulated  more  than  one  thousand  dollars  bal- 
ance.^* The  Mutual  Benefit  Branch  of  the  Methodist 
Brotherhood  at  Central  Church,  Detroit,  has  made  an 
even  better  showing.  The  Fraternal  Guild  of  St.  Mark's 
Episcopal  Church,  Denver,  adopted  an  initiation  fee  of 
two  dollars,  and  dues  of  fifty  cents  a  month;  at  death 
the  families  of  members  to  have  seventy-five  dollars, 
and  a  member  **in  dire  need"  to  receive  fifty  dollars. 
The  St.  Paul's  Society  of  the  Brick  Presbyterian  Church, 
New  York,  and  **The  Burial  Society"  of  the  same  par- 
ish determined  to  pay  fifty  dollars  on  the  death  of  a 
member,  raised  by  assessments.  The  above  are  illus- 
trations of  a  kind  of  church  work  which  could  wisely 
be  far  more  general  than  is  the  case.  In  this  connection 
it  may  be  stated  that  several  insurance  societies  for 
Christian  workers  are  very  successful.  The  Presbyte- 
rian Ministers'  Fund  is  the  oldest  old-line  life  insur- 
ance company.  It  was  founded  in  1759,  Originally  to 
insure  the  lives  of  Presbyterian  ministers,  it  later  re- 
ceived other  clergymen  as  members,  and  its  head  office 
is  in  Philadelphia.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  society  is 
called  the  Clergymen's  Mutual  Insurance  League,  with 
the  office  at  Mt.  Vernon,  New  York.  The  Methodist 
Mutual,  located  in  Boston,  and  several  Conferences  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  established  their  own 

53*'Ck)ngregationalist,"  April  25,  1908. 

365 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

insurance  societies,  as  did  also  a  number  of  other  de- 
nominational bodies.  Several  accident  and  fire  insur- 
ance companies  are  controlled  by  churchmen  in  their 
own  interest.  The  employed  officers  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  of  America  some  years  since  insti- 
tuted an  ** Insurance  Alliance,''  which  was  based  on  the 
assessment  plan.^*  Roman  Catholic  institutions  of  this 
character  have  been  considered  elsewhere. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  societies  for  working- 
men.  Some  years  since  both  local  and  general  organiza- 
tions, whose  purpose  was  to  look  after  the  religious  and 
social  needs  of  the  laboring  classes,  were  inaugurated 
by  various  churches.  The  Young  Men's  Institute  of 
Greenstone  Presbyterian  Church,  Pullman,  111.,  was  an 
illustration  of  the  local  society  of  this  kind.  No  mem- 
bership fee  was  required.  The  equipment  was  reading- 
room,  gyminasium,  bowling-alley,  and  lecture-hall.  The 
Church  of  the  Carpenter,  of  Boston,  was  established  for 
the  purpose  of  arousing  church  interest  in  social  mat- 
ters. The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  has  two  societies 
which  have  labored  for  the  improvement  of  the  indus- 
trial classes:  the  Church  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  the  Interests  of  Labor,  established  in  1887,  with 
Bishop  F.  D.  Huntington  as  president,  and  which 
**  works  by  sermons,  prayer,  corporate  communion,  lec- 
tures, distribution  of  literature,  political  action,  and  co- 
operation with  other  societies;"  and  the  Church  Social 
Union,  organized  in  1891  as  the  Christian  Social  Union, 
with  Dr.  R.  A.  Holland  as  prime  mover  and  Prof.  R.  T. 
Ely,  the  well-known  sociologist,  as  secretary,  and  which 
is  working  on  the  same  plans  as  those  of  the  similar 
society  in  the  Church  of  England.^^    The  Guild  of  St. 

"Reisner,  op.  cit.,  p.  215. 

^'See  articles,  ••Church  and  Social  Reform,"  and  ••England  and 
Social  Reform,"  in  •'The  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform,"  Bliss,  espe- 
cially pp.  275  and  563.  For  list  of  officers  and  other  details  of  the 
social  reform  societies  of  the  American  Church,  see  "Living  Church 
Annual." 

866 


LAYMEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

Matthew,  as  well  as  the  Christian  Social  Union  of  Eng- 
land, has  labored  very  earnestly  for  the  betterment  of 
working  people.  Although  the  Anglican  societies  are 
not  exclusively  composed  of  men,  they  have  been  prac- 
tically Christian  brotherhoods  and  should  be  so  classed, 
as  should  also  be  reckoned  the  Brotherhood  of  the  King- 
dom, mainly  of  Baptists,  and  devoted  to  the  same  under- 
takings. This  society  was  established  in  New  York  City 
in  1893  by  the  earnest  efforts  of  two  Baptist  laymen. 
Among  the  principles  stated  were  these:  ** Every  mem- 
ber shall  by  his  personal  life  exemplify  obedience  to 
the  ethics  of  Jesus.  He  shall  propagate  the  thoughts 
of  Jesus  to  the  limits  of  his  ability  in  private  conversa- 
tions, by  correspondence,  and  through  pulpit,  platform, 
and  press.  He  shall  lay  special  stress  on  the  social  aims 
of  Christianity,  and  shall  endeavor  to  make  Christ's 
teaching  concerning  wealth  operative  in  the  Church. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  shall  take  pains  to  keep  in  contact 
with  the  common  people  and  to  infuse  the  religious  spirit 
into  the  efforts  for  social  amelioration."^^ 

In  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  working- 
men's  clubs,  apart  from  labor  unions  and  benefit  or 
friendly  societies,  have  been  largely  developed.  Many 
of  these  are  irreligious  and  immoral.  Others  are  mere 
amusement  clubs,  while  some  are  philanthropic,  sup- 
ported or  assisted  by  the  Church,  and  devoted  to  teeto- 
talism,  and  to  educational  and  social  efforts.  On  the 
continent  workingmen's  clubs  are  generally  either  so- 
cialistic or  are  under  Church  auspices,  the  Roman 
Church  both  in  Europe  and  in  America  having  de- 
moted considerable  attention  to  the  laboring  classes. 
The  Militia  of  Christ  for  Social  Service  represents 
this  work.  In  1911  members  of  eleven  Protestant 
bodies  of  New  York  City  formed  a  committee  to  pro- 
mote  arbitration   in   industrial    disputes,    and   Roman 

""Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform,"  p.  192. 

367 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Catholic  leaders  in  social  service  offered  to  co-operate. 
The  outgrowth  is  organization  for  the  study  of  general 
industrial  conditions,  and  for  their  amelioration  in  times 
of  misunderstanding  and  of  strife/^  The  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Union  for  Social  Service  organized  study 
classes  to  consider  questions  connected  with  the  subject 
of  charity,  and  it  related  itself  also  to  the  problems  of 
work  and  wages,  and  during  the  early  years  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  a  similar  work  was  attempted  in  the  Meth- 
odist Churches  of  America. 

Nearly  all  Churches  have  laymen's  unions  or  associa- 
tions, mainly  of  men,  and  which  are  officially  recognized 
parts  of  the  church  machinery.  These  organizations 
often  have  local  branches,  and  sometimes  are  instituted 
in  the  various  bodies  representing  the  territorial  divi- 
sions of  the  Churches :  dioceses,  conferences,  synods,  and 
the  like.  The  Church  Laymen's  Union  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  is  a  missionary  organization  of  lay- 
men in  various  cities  of  America  whose  aim  is  "not 
missions  to  men,  but  men  to  missions.  That  is,  not  ap- 
peals from  mission  fields  by  way  of  missionary  societies, 
but  men,  in  a  business  way,  doing  their  part  without 
appeals.'*  In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  many 
Annual  Conferences  have  effective  laymen 's  associations. 
One  of  these  bodies  states  thus  its  objects:  "To  mutually 
interest  the  laymen  throughout  the  bounds  of  the  West 
Virginia  Methodist  Episcopal  Conference  in  all  the  gen- 
eral affairs  of  the  Church,  and  especially  in  every  local 
interest  whereby  the  Church  may  be  stirred  up  to  a 
greater  efficiency  and  usefulness  in  the  hands  of  God  in 
advancing  His  cause. ' '  ^^  "When  the  laity  are  admitted  to 
the  Annual  Conferences  of  Methodism  it  may  be  found, 

"The  inauguration  of  the  movement  was  reported  in  "Methodist 
Men,"  June,  1911. 

"From  the  Constitution  as  printed  in  the  "Official  Journal  and 
iHinutes,"  a  book  of  164  pages. 

368 


LAYMEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

as  in  ease  of  Churches  which  combine  lay  and  clerical 
orders  in  all  councils,  that  such  organizations  as  thQ 
ahove  are  unneeded. 

It  is  in  entire  harmony  with  the  purpose  which  is 
being  served  to  insert  in  this  record  of  adjunct  societies 
a  statement  of  the  principles  of  the  American  Guild  of 
Organists,  chartered  in  1896  by  the  Regents  as  a  part 
of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York.  All  of  the 
incorporators,  twenty-two  in  number,  were  men,  and  of 
one  hundred  and  forty-six  charter  members  all  were 
men  save  four.  Thus,  while  a  number  of  women  are  ad- 
mitted, the  organization  is  essentially  a  brotherhood. 
The  objects  of  the  guild  are  given  in  this  form:  *'a.  To 
advance  the  cause  of  worthy  church  music;  to  elevate 
the  status  of  church  organists;  to  increase  their  appre- 
ciation of  their  responsibilities,  duties,  and  opportuni- 
ties as  conductors  of  worship,  and  to  obtain  acknowledg- 
ment of  their  position  from  the  authorities  of  the 
Church,  b.  To  raise  the  general  efficiency  of  organists 
by  a  system  of  examinations  and  certificates,  and  by  the 
fostering  of  solo  organ  playing,  c.  To  provide  opportu- 
nities for  intercourse  among  organists;  for  the  discus- 
sion of  questions  of  interest  in  connection  with  their 
work,  and  for  hearing  model  performances  of  sacred! 
compositions. ' ' 

The  Christian  character  of  the  American  Guild  of 
Organists  is  indicated  in  its  high  and  beautiful  *' Decla- 
ration of  Principles.:*'  '*For  the  greater  glory  of  God, 
and  the  good  of  the  Holy  Church  in  this  land,  we  being 
severally  members  of  the  American  Guild  of  Organists, 
do  declare  our  mind  and  intention  in  the  things  follow- 
ing: We  believe  that  the  Office  of  Music  in  Christian 
"Worship  is  a  Sacred  Obligation  before  the  Most  High. 
We  believe  that  they  who  are  set  as  Choirmasters  and 
as  Organists  in  the  House  of  God  ought  themselves  to 
24  369 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

be  persons  of  devout  conduct,  teaching  the  ways  of  ear- 
nestness in  the  choirs  committed  to  their  charge.  We 
believe  that  the  unity  of  purpose  and  fellowship  of  life 
between  Ministers  and  Choirs  should  be  everywhere  es- 
tablished and  maintained.  We  believe  that  at  all  times 
and  in  all  places  it  is  meet,  right,  and  our  bounden  duty 
to  work  and  to  pray  for  the  advancement  of  Christian 
Worship  in  the  holy  gifts  of  strength  and  nobleness; 
to  the  end  that  the  Church  may  be  purged  of  her  blem- 
ishes, that  the  minds  of  men  may  be  instructed,  that  the 
honor  of  God's  house  may  be  guarded  in  our  time,  and 
in  the  time  to  come.  Wherefore  we  do  give  ourselves 
with  reverence  and  humility  to  these  endeavors,  offering 
up  our  works  and  our  persons  in  the  Name  of  Him  with- 
out Whom  nothing  is  strong,  nothing  is  holy.'*^® 

It  certainly  is  a  most  encouraging  sign  of  the  Holier 
spirit  which  is  needed  in  divine  worship  that  the  organ- 
ists of  America,  following  the  examples  of  similar  as- 
sistants in  the  ministry  of  religion  in  other  lands,  have 
espoused  such  ideals  as  these,  and  all  who  seek  to  actu- 
alize these  principles  will  surely  be  devout  and  able 
helpers  of  the  Christian  ministry  and  Churches. 

Perhaps  the  most  unique  brotherhood  of  Protestant 
origin  is  the  work  of  a  single  individual  and  of  a  little 
group  of  devotees  whom  he  is  gathering  about  him  for 
the  conversion  of  high-caste  natives  of  India.  The 
Brotherhood  of  the  Imitation  of  Jesus  was  started  about 
1906  by  a  young  Protestant  Episcopal  churchman  of 
Philadelphia,  whose  labors  are  under  the  patronage  of 
the  Bishop  of  Lahore.  The  first  description  of  the  work 
of  Mr.  Samuel  Stokes,  Jr.,  was  contributed  by  himself 
in  1908  to  The  East  and  the  West,  at  the  request  of  the 
editor  of  that  journal.^**    In  that  writing  Mr.  Stokes  re- 

"  American  Guild  of  Organists,  United  States  and  Canada;  Charters, 
Constitution  and  By-laws  issued  from  21  E.  Seventeenth  St.,  New  York 
City. 

2"  Republished  also  in  "St.  Andrew's  Cross"  for  October,  1908. 

370 


LAYMEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

fers  very  briefly  to  his  experiences  on  undertaking  to 
become  a  missionary  friar.  **It  would  be  useless,"  he 
says,  **to  speak  of  the  various  circumstances  which  led 
up  to  this  decision,  or  of  the  misunderstandings  and 
prejudice  aroused  when  I  made  my  purpose  known. 
Everything  unusual  must  at  first  arouse  prejudice.  In 
August,  1906,  if  I  remember  rightly,  I  distributed  what 
things  I  possessed  among  the  people  who  needed  them, 
and  after  three  days  spent  alone  in  prayer,  assumed 
the  Friar's  robe  and  the  obligations  of  a  Friar's  life  as  I 
understand  them.  From  then  I  have  been  trying,  though 
not  very  successfully,  to  live  up  to  this  ideal.  I  have 
not  always  been  true  to  it,  and  have  been  making  blun- 
ders continually;  nevertheless,  God  has  given  so  many 
opportunities  of  service,  and  showed  me  so  many  open- 
ings which  could  be  taken  advantage  of,  were  there  but 
men  to  enter  in,  that  I  know  that  His  blessing  is  upon 
the  work." 

The  study  of  Oriental  thought  which  he  had  made 
had  led  Mr.  Stokes  to  believe  that  the  Indian  has  a 
very  lofty  ideal,  to  which  few  even  try  to  live  up,  be- 
lieving that  this  is  impossible.  He  conceived  that  the 
need  was  not  to  present  an  ideal  to  those  who  already 
had  one  so  lofty,  but  to  convince  them  that  they  could 
attain  their  own  ideal,  and  that  the  way  to  do  so  was 
Christ.  In  no  country,  the  dreamer  said  to  himself,  is 
there  so  deep  a  realization  of  the  superiority  of  the 
Spiritual  as  exists  in  India,  and  when  the  people  of  that 
land  once  become  convinced  that  spiritual  perfection  is 
in  reach  of  every  man  they  will  astonish  the  world. 
Thus  it  became  the  ambition  of  this  youth  so  to  live 
Christ  before  the  Indian  people  that  they  might  be  con- 
vinced of  the  spiritual  power  of  Christianity,  and  be 
moved  to  accept  it  without  being  implored  or  urged. 

It  was,  of  course,  the  influence  of  Francis  of  Assisi 
:which  led  Samuel  Stokes,  Jr.,  to  seek  by  the  literal  fol- 

371 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

lowing  of  Jesus  to  propagate  His  gospel.  The  impres- 
sion of  duty  which  came  to  him  may  best  be  stated  in 
his  own  language.  ^*It  may  seem  curious  to  some  that 
I  chose  to  enter  upon  the  Friar's  life  when  seeking  a 
way  to  imitate  our  Lord.  It  was  because  Jesus  has 
always  seemed  to  me  to  be  the  perfect  Friar.  For  the 
Friar,  as  the  blessed  St.  Francis  conceived  him,  was  one 
who  tried  to  conform  his  life  in  all  particulars  to  the 
life  of  Jesus.  He  was  not  a  monk  dwelling  apart  from 
the  world,  but  a  brother  of  men,  and  dwelling  among 
them.  He  came  *not  to  be  ministered  to,  but  to  minis- 
ter,' as  his  Master  had  done  before  him;  hence  his  life 
was  one  of  service.  He  did  not  necessarily  bind  him- 
self with  the  three  vows  in  order  to  mortify  his  flesh 
or  to  raise  a  wall  of  separation  between  himself  and  the 
world,  but  rather  because  marriage,  wealth,  and  inde- 
pendence were  none  of  them  factors  in  the  life  of  Him 
whom  he  sought  to  follow.  He  strove  to  attain  to  the 
devotion,  love,  and  humble  self-abnegation  of  Jesus,  and 
he  aimed  at  an  implicit  obedience  to  His  commands. 
The  result  was  that  he  could  glory  in  hardships,  and  re- 
joice when  men  despised  him  and  set  him  at  naught, 
for  he  felt  himself  to  be  a  partaker  in  the  service  and 
cross  of  his  Lord.  He  learned  to  bless  those  who  cursed 
and  slandered  him,  to  pray  from  his  heart  for  those  who 
persecuted  him,  to  serve  with  humble  joy  the  lowest  and 
vilest  of  men,  for  life  was  Christ  to  him,  and  death  was 
gain.  His  home  was  in  the  dark  and  sorrowful  places 
of  the  earth.  There  he  sought  to  shine  for  his  Master 
as  a  light  in  the  midst  of  the  gloom.  The  leper,  the 
plague-stricken,  and  the  heavy-laden  knew  and  loved 
him.  The  hardened  heart  of  the  sinner  was  touched  by 
his  meek  and  holy  devotion.  In  short,  at  all  times  and 
upon  all  occasions  the  true  Friar  made  it  his  aim  to  live 
Jesus  and  keep  His  memory  fresh  among  men ;  hence  his 
life  was  an  ever-present  sermon  upon  the  love  and  life 

372 


LAYMEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

of  Christ.  This  is  the  life  of  the  Friar  who  has  been 
true  to  the  ideal  of  St.  Francis;  and  the  man  who  en- 
ters upon  such  a  life  is  a  Friar,  whatever  he  may  choose 
to  call  himself,  for  he  has  become  in  the  strictest  sense 
of  the  word  a  brother  of  his  fellow-men.  It  was  this 
idea  which  aroused  in  me  the  longing  to  give  up  the 
world.'' 

The  first  convert  of  Mr.  Stokes  was  a  boy  of  the 
proudest  caste  save  that  of  the  Brahmans,  a  Rajput, 
who  in  spite  of  persecution  at  home  espoused  Christ,  and 
was  placed  in  an  educational  institution  to  be  trained 
for  Christian  usefulness.  A  Christian  Sadhu,  or  holy 
man,  came,  and  taking  the  vows  cast  in  his  lot  with  the 
new  order,  and  thus  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Imitation  of 
Jesus  began  its  enrolled  membership. 

The  best  insight  into  the  spirit  and  methods  of 
**  Friar"  Stokes  may  be  obtained  from  one  of  several 
accounts  of  heroic  service  which  are  contained  in  the 
record  above  mentioned.  Every  winter  in  India  the 
dreaded  plague  begins  to  do  its  deadly  work,  and  de- 
spite all  efforts  of  the  government  its  ravages  destroy 
multitudes  of  people,  especially  in  the  Punjab,  and  as 
the  ignorant  have  the  belief  that  the  authorities  try  to 
reduce  the  population  by  the  use  of  fatal  medicines,  it 
is  difficult  to  help  them.  But  this  seemed  to  Mr.  Stokes 
to  be  his  opportunity.  *  *  It  seemed  that  something  might 
be  accomplished  if  I  were  to  go  into  one  of  the  infected 
villages  and  there  try  to  help  the  people.  So  I  took  a 
blanket,  a  little  water-vessel  called  a  *lota,'  a  few  medi- 
cines, and  my  Greek  New  Testament,  and  started  out  to 
look  for  the  proper  village.  I  slept  for  the  night  under 
a  tree  in  a  field,  and  in  the  morning  started  across 
country,  asking  those  whom  I  met  to  tell  me  where  the 
plague  was  thought  to  be  worst.  At  length  I  came  to 
a  village  which  seemed  to  answer  my  requirements.  In 
two  years  nearly  half  the  people  had  died.    Most  of  those 

373 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

:who  remained  were  living  in  huts  outside  the  walls, 
fearing  to  enter  the  gates  of  the  place.  Numbers  were 
lying  sick  and  some  were  dying  every  day. 

**I  did  not  go  directly  to  them,  but,  spreading  my 
blanket  on  the  ground  beneath  a  banyan  tree,  got  out 
my  New  Testament  and  began  to  read  to  myself.  It  is 
almost  always  better  to  let  people  come  to  you  than  to 
go  to  them.  At  last  the  headman  of  the  village  and  a 
number  of  others  came  over  to  ask  what  I  wanted  and 
to  inquire  who  I  was.  I  told  them  that  I  was  a  ^bhagat' 
(a  person  who  devotes  his  life  to  religious  exercises), 
and  that  I  lived,  as  a  rule,  up  in  the  mountains,  but 
having  heard  that  so  many  were  dying,  my  heart  had 
been  filled  with  pity.  I  had  come,  therefore,  desiring 
to  serve  them,  and  had  brought  with  me  certain  drugs 
which  might  be  able  to  cure  them.  *  Nevertheless,'  I  ex- 
plained, *God  curses  whom  He  wills;  we  can  only  test 
the  medicines,  and  then  accept  what  He  may  give.' 

**At  first  they  seemed  inclined  to  refuse  my  offer, 
but  after  some  discussion  told  me  that  they  had  no  ob- 
jection to  my  trying  my  drugs  upon  the  sick  Chamars 
(one  of  the  lowest  castes  of  the  Hindoos),  then  if  none  of 
these  were  injured  by  the  drugs,  they  would,  perhaps, 
let  me  treat  some  of  themselves.  *And  where  will  you 
lodge?'  they  asked.  I  assured  them  that  I  was  quite 
comfortable  under  the  tree  beneath  which  I  was  then 
sitting,  and  would  lodge  there  if  they  had  no  objection. 
'And  food?'  they  inquired.  'God  can  provide  food,'  I 
replied.    So  they  let  me  stay. 

"Leaving  my  New  Testament  and  blanket  beneath 
the  tree,  I  went  into  the  quarters  of  the  low-castes  to 
see  the  sick,  and  after  finding  out  their  condition,  and 
when  I  had  made  friends  with  them,  I  started  trying  to 
serve  them.  Towards  evening  one  of  the  headmen  came 
over  to  the  Chamars'  quarter  and  shouted  for  me  to 
come  to  him.    I  obeyed.    "When  I  arrived  at  the  place 

374 


LAYMEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

where  lie  stood  he  looked  contemptuously  at  me  and 
ordered  me  to  follow  him.  Wondering  what  this  change 
of  manner  could  mean,  I  obeyed  him.  When  we  arrived 
at  his  booth  a  large  number  of  men  assembled,  and  some 
began  to  laugh  boisterously  and  others  to  sneer  at  me. 
This  seemed  very  strange,  for  Hindoos  are,  as  a  rule, 
most  courteous.  Some  one  called  out,  *Get  him  some- 
thing to  eat.'  Others  replied,  *No,  let  him  eat  with  the 
sweepers.'  At  last,  however,  they  brought  a  filthy  old 
brass  dish,  and,  throwing  it  at  my  feet,  ordered  me  to 
wash  it  at  the  pond  near  by.  Much  puzzled  at  this  con- 
duct, I  took  up  the  plate  and  in  silence  went  to  obey 
them.  When  I  had  brought  it  back  they  threw  some 
stale  food  into  it  and  ordered  me  to  eat.  I  did  so,  while 
they  stood  about  and  stared  at  me.  After  I  had  eaten 
and  washed  the  dish  the  headmen  sat  down  to  smoke 
their  pipes,  reclining  at  ease  upon  cane  chairs  and  upon 
beds,  while  I  sat  near  them  on  the  ground. 

**They  kept  this  treatment  up  for  about  three  days, 
during  which  time  they  seemed  to  enjoy  nothing  quite 
so  much  as  insulting  me  and  ordering  me  about.  Had 
not  my  aim  been  the  imitation  of  Jesus,  I  should  most 
certainly  have  left  them  and  tried  to  find  some  place 
where  they  would  treat  me  more  politely.  But  the 
thought  that  He  had  been  misunderstood,  and  set  at 
naught  and  spat  upon,  always  held  me  back  and  filled 
me  with  the  desire  to  imitate  His  gentleness  and  pa- 
tience. So  I  stayed  and  continued  to  work  for  the  sick 
Chamars. 

**  Among  the  principal  men  of  the  place  was  one 
Baya  Singh,  a  Sikh.  When  the  people  came  to  question 
me  as  I  sat  under  the  banyan  tree  he  was  among  them. 
Of  all  those  who  seemed  to  take  a  pleasure  in  imposing 
upon  me  this  man  was  probably  the  worst.  One  even- 
ing— it  was  the  third  day,  I  think— he  called  me  to  him 
as  I  was  returning  to  my  home  beneath  the  tree.    As 

375 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

soon  as  I  approached  he  began  in  his  customary  way  to 
order  me  about  and  sneer  at  me,  watching  me  closely 
all  the  while.  I  did  what  he  bade  me  in  silence,  and 
when  he  asked  me  some  questions  tried  to  answer  as 
humbly  and  gently  as  I  thought  Christ  would  have  done. 
At  last  he  ordered  me  sharply  to  go  over  to  my  tree. 
I  started  to  do  so,  but  had  hardly  gone  ten  paces  when 
he  overtook  me,  pulled  off  his  turban,  and  laying  it  on 
my  feet,  bowed  almost  to  the  ground  before  me,  ex- 
claiming at  the  same  time,  'Maharaj,'  which  means 
'great  king'  and  is  the  title  by  which  bhagats  are  com- 
monly addressed  in  Northern  India.  Then  he  walked 
over  to  the  tree  with  me,  explaining  the  while  how  the 
villagers  had  not  believed  that  there  could  be  bhagats 
among  the  foreigners,  and  how  they  had  resolved  to  test 
me.  'Now,'  he  concluded,  *I  know  that  you  are  truly 
a  bhagat  of  God,  for  you  are  gentle,  and  when  men 
insult  yom,  you  do  not  become  angered.  Moreover,  you 
love  every  one,  even  the  low-castes  and  the  children,  and 
speak  mildly  to  those  who  torment  you.  Thus  did  Guru 
Nanak  Dev  and  Raja  Gopi  Chand,  and  by  this  sign 
all  bhagats  may  be  known.' 

**This  is  the  substance  of  what  he  said,  and  from 
that  time  the  attitude  of  the  people  became  absolutely 
changed.  One  after  another  came  to  make  friends  with 
me,  and  every  evening  when  work  in  the  fields  was  fin- 
ished, men  brought  their  hookas  (the  Indian  pipe)  to 
my  banyan  tree,  where  we  sat  and  talked  for  hours,  while 
the  children  listened  or  played  about. 

*'They  no  longer  gave  me  stale  food  in  battered  ves- 
sels, but  every  old  lady  in  the  place  vied  with  her  neigh- 
bor in  preparing  good  things  for  me.  Wherever  I  went 
it  was  'Salam  Baba  (Father),  will  you  have  some  milk 
or  buttermilk?'  or,  'Salam  Maharaj,  can  I  not  cook  some- 
thing for  you?'  They  called  me  in  to  visit  their  sick, 
and  obeyed  all  my  directions  implicitly." 

376 


LAYMEN'S  UNIONS,  LEAGUES,  AND  CLUBS 

It  is  easy  to  make  light  of  the  mediaevalism  of  this 
young  enthusiast.  Many  would  ridicule  his  pose  as  a 
*  *  Religious, ' '  as  a  * '  Holy  Friar, "  as  a  * '  Bhagat. "  I  am 
informed  that  some  of  the  regular  missionaries  of  vari- 
ous Churches  declare  that  the  work  of  Mr.  Stokes  is 
abnormal.  Truly,  it  must  be  abnormal  as  judged  from 
the  safe-salaried,  respectable  positions  of  average  Chris- 
tian teachers.  But  the  list  of  Christ's  abnormal  laborers 
is  very  honorable,  containing  names  which  are  held  to 
be  very  saintly,  and  a  man  who  has  voluntarily  served 
the  victims  of  Indian  plague,  who  has  given  himself  to 
nurse  back  to  health  a  small-pox  stricken  college  student, 
who  has  taken  abuse  silently,  has  lived  off  alms,  and  has 
performed  the  most  menial  service  that  he  might  repre- 
sent the  spirit  of  Christ,  is  one  to  be  reckoned  with.  His 
brotherhood  may  be  small,  since  few  will  be  likely  to 
follow  such  an  example  of  self-abnegation,  but  without 
a  doubt  some  permanent  Christian  impressions  are  be- 
ing made.  In  the  spring  of  1911  Mr.  Stokes  baptized 
a  high-caste  Rajput  in  Kotgurh,  and  The  Mission  Field 
reports  his  action  concerning  an  attack  which  was  made 
upon  the  missionary  by  angered  devotees  of  the  caste- 
system:  ''Action  was  taken  by  the  police  against  those 
who  had  been  responsible  for  the  riot  and  the  assault 
on  Mr.  Stokes,  but  when  the  case  came  on  in  court  he 
was  allowed  to  compound  the  charge  for  injury,  and 
the  government,  at  Mr.  Stokes's  request  and  on  his  as- 
surance that  he  believed  that  such  a  course  would  con- 
duce to  the  peace  of  the  district  and  to  the  termination 
of  the  present  bitterness,  withdrew  the  charge  for  riot. 
In  the  evening  of  the  same  day  the  chief  offender,  who 
had  hitherto  refrained  from  any  appeal  to  Mr.  Stokes 
for  remission  of  the  case,  though  many  of  his  friends 
had  pleaded  for  him,  came  and  humbly  asked  forgive- 
ness for  the  wrong  which  he  had  done.  For  another  of 
his  would-be  murderers  Mr.  Stokes  has  succeeded  in 
finding  work  in  the  neighborhood  of  Simla.*' 

377 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Surely  this  is  conduct  which  is  very  Christlike.  It 
is  such  an  imitation  of  Jesus  as  must  not  only  make 
converts,  but  weaken  opposition  of  every  kind.  Pos- 
sibly the  brotherhood  of  Mr.  Stokes  may  also  be  setting 
before  the  minds  of  all  Christian  brotherhoods  the  ideal 
of  a  deeper  consecration  to  the  needs  of  humanity  and 
to  the  divine  will. 

The  account  of  this  altogether  exceptional  brother- 
hood may  fittingly  close  the  present  outline  of  organized 
Christian  work  by  men.  Societies  of  many  kinds  have 
been  discussed,  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant,  of  all 
Christian  Churches  and  of  many  shades  of  doctrinal  be- 
lief. Auxiliary  societies  have  been  considered,  as  have 
been  also  the  half-secular  and  secular  organizations 
which  have  been  built  upon  some  phase  of  Christian 
truth  or  even  upon  error  masquerading  as  Christian. 
Every  effort  has  been  made  to  give  a  fair  presentation 
of  the  value  of  each  institution  studied,  and  the  supreme 
thought  has  been  to  disclose  without  exaggeration  the 
great  part  which  Christian  brotherhoods  have  taken  in 
the  work  of  the  Church  and  in  the  progress  and  develop- 
ment of  civilization.  It  remains  to  discuss  the  broad 
theme  of  Men  and  Christianity,  and  to  strive  to  indi- 
cate the  noble  future  which  awaits  the  high  talents,  the 
courage,  and  the  devotion  of  Christian  brothers. 


378 


XXI 

MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

It  can  hardly  be  successfully  disputed  that  recent  years 
have  seen  a  great  increase  of  religious  interest  on  the 
part  of  men.  Statistics  of  all  Churches  indicate  this. 
Census  reports  and  numerical  tests  of  various  kinds  are 
added  evidence.  Even  ordinary  observation  confirms 
the  fact. 

Some  years  since  the  alarming  cry  was  raised,  **Men 
are  deserting  the  Church."  Figures  were  published 
which  would  have  been  sufficiently  startling  if  they  had 
not  been  grossly  exaggerated,  as  was  often  the  case. 
When  exact  enumerations  began  to  be  made  it  was 
found  that  pessimism  had  gone  too  far  in  stating  the 
proportion  of  men  who  never  attended  divine  worship. 
The  ridiculously  untrue  claim  of  ninety-three  per  cent 
of  habitual  absentees  was  often  repeated  by  well-mean- 
ing persons  of  the  class  which  never  questions  the  va- 
lidity of  what  is  read  or  heard.  But  while  such  alleged 
statistics  were  soon  disproved,  the  facts  ascertained  by 
widespread  inquiry  were  far  from  satisfactory.  A  care- 
ful canvass  of  one  of  the  largest  cities  showed  that  only 
one-third  of  the  church  membership  was  composed  of 
men  and  boys.  An  able  article  on  *  *  Men  in  the  Church, ' ' 
written  at  about  the  same  time,  said:  '*For  years  the 
writer  of  this  article  has  been  especially  interested  in 
religiously  reaching  men.  During  the  last  year  he  has 
sought  information  from  both  preachers  and  laymen  of 
various  denominations  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
and  in  towns  and  villages  as  well  as  cities,  concerning 

379 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

the  relative  proportion  of  men  to  women  in  Chnrcli  at- 
tendance and  Church  membership.  The  replies  received 
to  his  letters  of  inquiry  have  been  remarkable  for  their 
similarity.  The  proportions  usually  given  are  one  to 
two,  one  to  three,  one  to  four.  In  some  cases  it  is  one 
to  five,  and  in  a  few  the  proportion  is  even  smaller.  No 
letter  has  told  him  of  an  even  proportion.  One  of  the 
most  able,  distinguished,  and  devoted  bishops  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  says  that  throughout  his  diocese  the 
relative  attendance  of  men  at  church  is  one  to  three,  and 
that  his  confirmations  show  the  same  proportion.  The 
nature  of  most  of  the  replies  received  will  be  indicated 
by  extracts  from  some  of  them.  A  young  business  man, 
earnestly  religious,  who  has  traveled  all  over  the  land, 
writes:  'From  general  observation  I  would  say  that  two- 
thirds  of  the  congregations  are  made  up  of  women  and 
girls.  In  our  own  church  the  proportion  of  men  at- 
tending the  morning  service  is  even  less,  one  to  five.' 
Another  says,  *  Four-fifths  women.'  A  prominent  jour- 
nalist and  author  writes,  'In  Protestant  Churches  in 
Boston  I  should  say  that  the  congregations  are  composed 
of  two  women  to  one  man.'  The  eloquent  pastor  of  a 
prominent  and  historic  Congregational  Church  in  a 
New  England  city  says,  'I  suppose  with  us  the  general 
ratio,  four  to  one,  prevails;  four  women  to  one  man.' 
A  preacher  who  is  well  known  throughout  his  city  for 
his  influence  on  men  says,  *A  congregation  in  which  men 
form  a  proportion  as  large  as  one-third  is  a  rare  sight.' 
These  are  fair  samples.  The  proportion  of  men  who 
attend  prayer-meetings  is  smaller  than  that  of  those  who 
attend  preaching  services.  The  average  ratio  of  men  to 
women  in  the  membership  of  the  churches  seems  to  be 
somewhat  less  than  one  to  three,  as  indicated  by  many 
of  my  letters  as  well  as  by  personal  examination  of  a 
goodly  number  of  church  rolls.  These  letters  also  indi- 
cate that  the  disparity  between  men  and  women  in 

380 


MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

Church  attendance  and  Church  membership  is  on  the  in- 
crease in  the  many  communities  reported."^ 

The  significant  items  in  this  account  are  the  unfa- 
vorable general  conditions  reported,  and  the  gloomy 
outlook  of  the  closing  sentence.  About  the  same  time 
Dr.  Rufus  W.  Miller  stated  that  'Hhe  largest  proportion 
of  non-churchgoers  is  found  among  young  men.  It 
would  seem  true  from  statistics  on  hand  that  sixty-five 
out  of  every  hundred  men  never  attend  church  at  aU."^ 
In  1903  Professor  Cressey  had  somewhat  better  figures : 
*'From  these  investigations  it  appears  that  the  large 
majority  of  young  men,  or  9,059,000  out  of  14,250,000 
are  outside  of  Church  membership.  Even  after  allowing 
a  large  margin  for  those  who  are  not  members,  but  at- 
tend religious  services  at  least  occasionally,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  fully  one-half  are  wholly  outside  of  Church 
fellowship  or  direct  influence.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  all  too  evident  that  vast  numbers  of  young  men  are 
leading  lives  of  positive  immorality."" 

The  new  movement  of  men  toward  Christ  and  the 
Church  which  began  in  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  which  was  furthered  by  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association,  and  more  intimately  and  power- 
fully by  the  various  Church  Brotherhoods,  continued  to 
progress  during  the  early  years  of  the  twentieth  century 
until  before  the  end  of  the  first  decade  a  very  different 
coloring  began  to  appear  in  discussions  of  this  theme. 
Discouraging  statements  continued  to  be  made  occa- 
sionally, based  on  local  observations,  as  when  Judge 
Cleland  of  Chicago  estimated  that  in  that  city  seven 
per  cent  only  of  the  men  were  members  of  the  Churches.* 

*J.  E.  C.  Sawyer,  D.  D.,  in  "Northern  Christian  Advocate." 

2  In  "Why  a  Men's  Organization?"  Rufus  Miller,  D.  D.,  founder  of 
the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip. 

»  "Church  and  Young  Men,"  p.  5. 

*  Quoted  by  Rev.  Prank  Dyer,  "Congregationalist  and  Christian  at 
Work,"  1908. 

331 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Very  likely  this  excellent  jurist  was  misled  in  part,  and 
probably  the  actual  condition  in  Chicago  at  the  time  was 
not  quite  so  bad  as  was  the  showing  on  which  he  based 
his  remark.  At  all  events  very  careful  investigations 
in  other  cities  gave  ground  for  encouragement,  though 
at  about  the  same  date  Washington  Gladden  said :  *  *  The 
brotherhood  in  every  Congregational  Church  ought  to 
face  the  fact  that  two-thirds  of  our  members  are  women. 
It  is  abnormal  and  shameful;  it  is  contrary  to  nature 
and  a  scandal  to  the  Church.  There  is  something  wrong 
about  a  religion  that  attracts  only  half  as  many  men 
as  women.  There  are  a  million  and  a  half  more  men 
than  women  in  the  United  States,  and  no  reason  can 
be  suggested  why  the  sexes  should  not  be  equally  rep- 
resented in  the  Church.  We  have  none  too  many  women, 
and  no  words  can  tell  the  debt  we  owe  to  them,  but  a 
preponderance  of  female  influence  in  the  Church  or  any- 
where else  in  society  is  unnatural  and  injurious.''^ 

In  ^pite  of  the  form  of  this  statement  it  will  be 
noted  that  its  claims  for  the  proportion  of  men  in  Church 
membership  is  much  larger  than  were  those  of  an  earlier 
period,  and  that  a  few  years  later  the  ratio  of  the  sexes 
in  the  matter  of  attendance  at  worship  was  giving  much 
cause  for  encouragement  was  indicated  by  the  follow- 
ing editorial:  ** There  is  a  widespread,  well-nigh  uni- 
versal impression  that  Church  attendance  is  rapidly  de- 
creasing, and  that  this  is  especially  characteristic  of  the 
attendance  of  men.  Prevalent  impressions  are  very  dan- 
gerous, as  they  are  so  often  incorrect.  We  believe  that 
if  the  facts  be  ascertained  both  of  these  impressions 
would  be  proved  untrue.  Let  us  refer  in  this  connection 
to  two  striking  facts.  If  there  is  any  place  where  it 
would  be  thought  that  these  prevalent  impressions  were 
true,  it  would  be  in  the  larger  cities,  and  especially  in 
New  York,  the  largest.     But  fortunately  facts  are  at 

^  Ut  supra. 

382 


MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

hand  about  New  York.  Each  year  since  1901  the  Church 
News  Association  of  New  York  has  counted  the  attend- 
ance of  men,  members,  and  Sunday  school  children  at 
the  churches  in  New  York.  The  recent  count  shows  that 
in  the  last  ten  years  the  attendance  has  increased  eight 
per  cent,  and  of  men  fourteen  per  cent.  The  Association 
reports  also  that  the  number  of  men  who  attend  special 
services,  especially  noonday  ones,  is  rapidly  increasing, 
as  is  the  number  of  men  ready  to  do  permanent  work 
on  Sundays  instead  of  attending  merely  the  public  morn- 
ing service  of  worship.  This  is  reflected  in  the  growth 
of  the  attendance  at  early  services.  And  if  there  is 
any  one  place  where  it  would  be  thought  women  would 
greatly  outnumber  men,  it  would  be  at  a  fortnight's 
Lenten  mission.  But  what  are  the  facts?  At  a  great 
Lenten  mission  carried  on  for  two  weeks  in  the  city  of 
Toronto  recently,  to  deepen  the  spiritual  life  of  the 
parishes  in  the  city,  there  was  an  average  attendance 
every  night  of  ten  thousand,  and  of  these  the  majority 
were  men."^ 

But  in  spite  of  the  reassuring  symptoms  thus  de- 
scribed the  condition  was  not  yet  pleasing  to  the  Church. 
*^ Women  and  girls,"  it  was  said,  *' outnumber  the  men 
and  boys  in  the  Christian  Churches  of  North  America 
by  the  somewhat  startling  figure  of  three  million.  No 
one  would  wish  to  see  the  situation  reversed,  observes 
Mr.  Charles  W.  Gilkey,  but  the  present  disparity  needs 
amending."^ 

During  the  years  from  1908  to  1912  several  impor- 
tant men's  movements  were  inaugurated.  A  federa- 
tion of  the  Protestant  brotherhoods,  for  mutual  infor- 
mation and  for  co-operation  in  undertakings  of  common 
interest  or  of  public  welfare,  was  formed  at  a  meeting 
held  in  Chicago,  January  23,  1908.    From  the  inspira- 

«  "St.  Andrew's  Cross,"  June,  1911. 
'"Literary  Digest,"  February  25,  1911. 

383 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

tion  of  this  initial  union  of  spirit  and  plan,  without  or- 
ganic union,  valuable  results  came  which  seemed  des- 
tined to  lead  to  issues  of  vital  moment  to  the  success  of 
Christ's  Kingdom.  The  Young  Men's  Christian  Associ- 
ation, the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew,  the  Methodist, 
Baptist,  Presbyterian,  and  the  Congregational  Brother- 
hoods were  represented  in  this  inception  of  federated 
activity  of  churchmen,  and  the  societies  thus  joined 
were  the  sustaining  force  in  later  general  men's  move- 
ments. Of  scarcely  less  importance  to  religious  life  was 
the  American  Federation  of  Catholic  Societies  to  which 
reference  has  been  already  made,  which  was  instituted 
earlier  but  was  made  more  powerful  about  this  time  by 
the  affiliation  with  the  other  Catholic  societies  of  the 
Knights  of  Columbus.  A  laymen's  missionary  move- 
ment was  inaugurated  in  1909,  and  in  many  cities  and 
towns  of  North  America  conventions  were  held  with  the 
object  of  increasing  the  contributions  of  the  Churches 
to  the  cause  of  missions.  The  Men  and  Religion  For- 
ward Movement  of  1911-1912  was  a  propaganda  '4n  be- 
half of  the  Christian  life  of  the  men  and  boys  of  North 
America."  The  organizations  participating  in  this 
widely  advertised  and  strongly  financed  undertaking, 
which  held  institutes  of  religious  education  in  seventy- 
five  cities,  were  the  following  church  brotherhoods  and 
auxiliary  and  interdenominational  men's  societies: 
Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip,  the  Baptist  Brother- 
hood, Congregational  Brotherhood  of  America,  Brother- 
hood of  Disciples  of  Christ,  the  Gideons,  the  Inter- 
national Committee  of  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciations of  North  America,  the  International  Sunday 
School  Association,  the  Lutheran  Brotherhood,  the 
Methodist  Brotherhood,  the  Otterbein  Brotherhood,  the 
Presbyterian  Brotherhood  of  America,  Brotherhood  of 
St.  Andrew,  the  United  Presbyterian  Brotherhood. 
The  stated  objective  of  the  Men  and  Religion  For- 
384 


MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

ward  Movement  contained  these  items:  *'l.  Men's  Chris- 
tian Organizations:  To  leave  with  every  men's  Chris- 
tian organization  a  worthy  and  workable  plan  of  special- 
ized effort  for  men  and  boys.  2.  Literature :  To  assem- 
ble and  publish  a  statement  of  the  most  approved  meth- 
ods of  religious  work  for  men  and  boys.  3.  Evangelism : 
To  win  to  Christ  and  the  Church  the  largest  possible 
number  of  men  and  boys  by  May  1,  1912.  4.  Bible 
Study:  To  greatly  increase  the  enrollment  in  Bible 
classes.  5.  Missionary:  To  continue  and  increase  the 
emphasis  of  the  Christian  religion  as  the  one  and  only 
hope  of  the  world,  and  to  make  abiding  the  mission- 
ary enterprises  of  the  Church  at  home  and  abroad.  6. 
Service:  To  reveal  the  program  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the 
world  in  such  a  manner  that  the  strongest  men  will  vol- 
unteer for  life  service  in  the  Church.  This  service  to 
include  a  Christian  investment  of  time,  personal  talents, 
and  money.  7.  Civic  Betterment:  To  make  a  perma- 
nent contribution  to  the  best  life  of  the  continent,  social, 
political,  commercial,  and  physical.  8.  Public  Worship : 
To  exalt  the  spiritual  power  of  the  public  worship  of 
God."« 

A  significant  declaration  of  the  leaders  of  the  Men 
and  Eeligion  Movement,  adopted  at  the  Buffalo  (New 
York)  Conference,  which  virtually  inaugurated  the  un- 
dertaking, was  that  *'we  emphasize  our  belief  in  the 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  as  the  one  instrumentality  ap- 
pointed by  Him  for  the  salvation  of  the  world.*'  Insti- 
tutes were  conducted  by  selected  teams  composed  of  en- 
thusiastic men  of  various  specialties  and  degrees  of 
ability,  who  discussed,  largely  before  audiences  of  se- 
lected churchmen,  the  themes  stated  in  the  objective 
above  outlined.  These  men,  aided  by  local  leaders,  con- 
ducted shop,  hotel,  school,  and  open-air  meetings,  as 

well  as  evangelistic  services  in  churches  and  in  halls. 

■  —  ■ 

•Prospectus,  "Meu  and  Religion  Forward  Movement, "- 

25  385 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

The  week  spent  in  each  place  visited  was  concluded  with 
recommendations  formally  stated  by  the  team  concern- 
ing the  future  work  of  the  churches  of  that  town.  Aux- 
iliary meetings  were  held  in  the  smaller  places  surround- 
ing the  centers  visited  by  the  regular  teams.  Results,  of 
course,  varied  greatly  in  different  localities,  but  the  re- 
lation of  men  to  the  Church  and  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Christ  was  widely  advertised  and  considered,  and  while 
the  movement  did  not  pass  without  criticism,  high 
authorities,  both  religious  and  secular,  stated  that  in 
their  judgment  the  interest  and  training  of  churchmen 
was  stimulated,  and  the  tide  of  men  which  is  setting 
Christward  was  accelerated. 

The  permanent  agencies  are,  of  course,  those  which 
are  to  be  relied  on  for  continued  growth  of  the  Christian 
Kingdom.  The  work  of  men  is  best  furthered  within 
the  Church  itself  by  laymen's  associations,  local  brother- 
hoods, and  men's  Bible  classes,  and  the  labors  of  these 
organizations  are  supplemented  by  the  constant  co-oper- 
ation of  brotherhood  federations  and  by  such  societies 
as  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations,  the  Anti- 
Saloon  and  Civic  Leagues,  and  the  Gideons.  Movements, 
so-called,  pass  over  the  surface  of  life  like  waves.  When 
they  have  passed,  comes  the  trough,  and  then  another 
wave.  The  tide  is  produced  by  the  constant  operation 
of  Christian  influence  upon  the  minds  of  men,  and  the 
activities  of  the  regular  institutions  of  the  Church  are 
the  streams  which  bear  fullness  to  the  ocean  of  evangel- 
istic success,  of  religious  development,  and  of  abiding 
usefulness. 

Taking  everything  into  account,  then,  there  is  good 
reason  to  rejoice  in  the  new  and  more  definite  and  effect- 
ive relations  of  men  to  the  Church  and  to  the  cause  and 
work  of  Christ  as  represented  in  His  Church.  Truly  the 
Church,  in  what  in  esse  and  in  actu  it  is,  must  be  re- 
garded by  every  impartial  student  of  the  New  Testament 

386 


MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

as  being  God's  one  and  only  means  of  redeeming  the 
world.  It  is  no  accident  that  He  has  said  to  the  Church : 
* '  Ye  are  My  witnesses ; ' '  "  Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth ; '  * 
'  *  Ye  are  the  light  of  the  world. ''  The  Church  is  Christ 's 
body :  He  is  in  the  Church ;  He  is  its  Head ;  through 
the  Church  He  is  working  out  His  will  and  purpose  in 
the  world.  Men  are  coming  to  have  a  profound  reali- 
zation of  this  truth,  and  with  it  a  sense  of  the  personal 
responsibility  which  rests  upon  them  as  members  of  the 
Lord's  body.  They  begin  to  see  that  they  have  a  per- 
sonal obligation  to  co-operate  in  the  divine  work  for 
their  own  salvation,  since,  as  St.  Austin  so  truly  said, 
'^Qui  fecit  nos  sine  nobis,  non  salvahit  nos  sine  nobis," 
Men  are  coming  more  fully  to  realize  also  that  they 
actually  and  effectually  are  in  great  part  their  broth- 
ers* keepers,  but  that  in  many  instances  they  are  keep- 
ing their  brothers  out  of  the  Kingdom  of  God,  instead 
of  keeping  them  out  of  the  power  and  doom  of  the  devil. 
This  accounts  for  the  emphasis  now  laid  upon  personal 
and  social  evangelism,  on  the  one  hand  by  such  writings 
as  those  of  Wood,  the  Trumbulls,  Begbie,  Jowett,  Say- 
ford,  and  Johnston,^  and  also  by  the  works  of  sociolo- 
gists and  reformers  like  Ely,  Rauschenbusch,  Gladden, 
Strong,  Peabody,  Cunningham,  Stelzle,  and  Earp.^**  To 
the  question,  Shall  we  work  on  the  individual  or  shall 
we  devote  ourselves  to  improving  his  environment  by 
education,  by  philanthropy,  and  by  good  laws?  the  an- 

•  "Winning  Men  One  by  One,"  H.  Wellington  Wood.  "Individual 
Work  for  Individuals,"  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  and  "Taking  Men  Alive," 
Charles  Gallaudet  Trumbull.  "Twice-Born  Men"  and  "Souls  in  Action," 
Howard  Begbie.  "Passion  for  Souls,"  J,  H.  Jowett.  "Personal  Work," 
S.  M.  Say  ford.  "Studies  for  Personal  Workers,"  Howard  Agnew 
Johnston. 

*•" Social  Aspects  of  Christianity,"  Richard  T.  Ely.  "Christianity 
and  the  Social  Crisis,"  Walter  Rauschenbusch.  "Christianity  and 
Socialism,"  Washington  Gladden.  "Religious  Movements  for  Social 
Betterment,"  Josiah  Strong.  "Jesus  Christ  and  the  Social  Question," 
F.  G.  Peabody.  "Christianity  and  Social  Question,"  W.  Cunningham. 
"Social  Service  Studies,"  CHiarles  Stelzle.  "Tlie  Social  Engineer," 
Edwin  L.  Earp. 

387 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

swer  is  returned,  In  the  name  of  Christ  we  will  do  both, 
since  what  is  the  life  of  man  in  an  evil  world  and  what 
is  the  life  of  the  world  if  man  is  evil? 

Men  have  discovered  and  the  fact  is  attractive  to 
them  that  Christianity  means  a  fight,  that  its  object  is 
war  a  la  entrance.  As  the  author  of  this  book  said  in 
a  former  work:  ''Jesus  Christ  will  never  be  made  King 
by  waving  banners,  by  rallying  cries,  or  by  singing 
Coronation.  Battles  must  be  waged  against  the  devil: 
there  must  be  mighty  conflicts  with  sin,  and  magnificent 
and  costly  victories  must  be  won  over  the  powers  which 
enthrall  men  and  keep  them  from  serving  Christ.  The 
warfare  of  Christianity  is  one  of  love,  and  not  of 
slaughter;  no  less  on  that  account  does  it  require  cour- 
age, ability,  and  devotion.  Many  will  yet  lay  down 
their  lives  for  it,  and  many  more  will  lay  down  a  life 
on  this  altar.  But  it  is  the  King's  cause,  and  will  tri- 
umph.''" 

That  victories  of  Christian  principle  and  zeal  need 
not  be  deferred  until  the  ultimate  and  universal  con- 
quest to  be  made  by  the  Lord  of  Hosts  is  being  proved 
in  various  places  by  civic  and  social  undertakings  of 
church  brotherhoods  and  federations.  In  a  way  some- 
times feeble  and  tentative,  and  sometimes  aggressive 
and  vigorous,  at  least  for  a  time,  churchmen  are  testing 
their  strength  and  are  finding  what  they  can  do  singly 
and  in  combination.  The  slumbering  giant  of  Christian 
self-consciousness  and  of  moral  purpose  has  been 
aroused,  and  not  knowing  as  yet  that  it  is  a  giant,  it  be- 
gins to  stretch  its  limbs,  and  occasionally  to  strike  out. 
Aimlessly  and  ineffectively,  like  the  blows  of  infants, 
many  of  its  strokes  fall  upon  the  foes  of  righteousness, 

"  "Every  Day  Evangelism,"  pp.  204  and  205.  "  "The  army  that 
remains  in  the  trenches  is  beaten,'  says  a  military  expert,  and  this  is 
certainly  true  of  the  Church  of  Christ.  It  must  do  or  die.  It  must  go 
forward,  or  its  soldiers  become  weak  and  cowardly.  But  if  the  charge 
be  sounded  and  the  conflict  pressed,  the  God  of  battles  may  be  relied 
ux>oii  to  give  the  victory  and  to  multiply  the  spoils."     Ibid,  p.  55. 

388 


MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

but  the  sense  of  weakness  is  passing,  and  clearness  of 
percejition,  both  of  social  conditions  and  of  their  reme- 
dies, is  fast  coming.  The  day  is  not  far  off  when  the 
Christian  will  and  determination  are  to  lay  firm  hold 
of  political,  industrial,  and  ethical  evils  and  to  destrojr 
them. 

In  not  a  few  cases  local  societies  of  churchmen  have 
wrought  a  work  which  has  astonished  the  community. 
Revivals  of  religion  and  transformations  of  church  ac- 
tivities have  been  caused  by  the  new  spirit  and  by  the 
labors  of  such  organizations,  and  in  not  a  few  instances 
reforms  have  been  instituted  and  good  laws  enacted. 
A  specific  and  typical  instance  of  social  betterment 
through  the  efforts  of  the  local  brotherhoods  occurred  in 
a  town  of  Montana  in  1911.  The  saloons  of  Missoula, 
the  seat  of  the  University  of  Montana,  had  been  growing 
very  troublesome  on  account  of  late  hours  and  Sunday 
traffic.  It  was  thought  by  the  best  citizens  that  some- 
thing should  be  done  to  secure  quiet  Sundays.  On  Oc- 
tober 17th  a  city  paper  had  an  article  of  over  a  column 
under  the  caption,  ** People  to  Demand  Sunday  Closing; 
Mass-meeting  of  Churchmen  Results  in  Organized  Effort 
Favoring  Ordinance.''  This  report  said,  *'The  first  or- 
ganized movement  was  launched  at  the  mass-meeting  of 
churchmen  at  the  Christian  Church,  the  meeting  having 
been  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  federated  Church 
brotherhoods  of  Missoula.  "^^  Dr.  J.  E.  Kirkwood,  pro- 
fessor of  Botany  in  the  university,  and  prominent  in  the 
Methodist  Brotherhood,  presided,  and  committees  were 
appointed  on  petitions,  and  on  presentation  to  the  city 
council  of  the  demand  of  the  people  for  Sunday  closing 
of  saloons.  A  hundred  of  the  men  present  pledged 
themselves  to  attend  the  council  meetings  and  to  sup- 
port the  committee.  On  October  19th  the  same  paper 
in    over    three    columns    reported,    **  Churches    Show 

""The  MiBBOulian,"  October  17,  1911. 

389 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

Strength  in  Fight  to  Close  Saloons  on  Seventh  Day; 
City  Government  Listens  to  Arguments  in  Favor  of  Dry 
Sundays."  The  earnest  speeches  delivered  by  represent- 
atives of  the  church  brotherhoods  were  published  at 
length.  October  20th  the  heading  was  *' Missoula's 
Council  Procrastinates."  Petitions,  agitation,  and  pres- 
sure increased,  and  the  next  day,  October  21st,  exactly 
four  days  from  the  date  of  the  federated  mass-meetings, 
after  a  busy  fight  which  stirred  the  city  to  its  depths 
the  news  was,  ** Ordinance  is  Passed;  Unanimous  Vote 
in  City  Council  Makes  Measure  a  Law."  The  brother- 
hoods were  surprised  at  the  promptness  and  complete- 
ness of  their  triumph,  and,  as  in  other  instances  of  a 
similar  nature,  they  were  strengthened  in  confidence  and 
in  determination  to  assert  themselves  in  behalf  of  right- 
eousness. 

Not  long  before  the  above  occurrence  a  brotherhood 
magazine  contained  an  account  of  a  legislative  victory 
won  principally  by  the  efforts  of  a  single  church 
brotherhood.  **What  may  be  accomplished  by  the 
Church  through  wisely  directed  effort  was  never  better 
exemplified  than  in  Minnesota.  For  years  spasmodic 
efforts  have  been  made  in  the  Legislature  to  enact  a  law 
relaxing  the  brutal  and  antiquated  method  of  dealing 
with  petty  offenders  and  permitting  the  more  humane 
probation  or  suspended  sentence  rule  to  be  invoked,  but 
in  the  rush  of  legislation  and  conflict  of  other  interests 
little  progress  was  made.  Finally  the  Brotherhood  of 
Park  Congregational  Church  of  St.  Paul  invited  Judge 
Finehout  to  address  its  members  upon  this  subject,  which 
he  did  in  October,  1908.  It  was  then  decided  to  arouse 
interest  on  this  subject  in  the  three  large  cities,  Minne- 
apolis, St.  Paul,  and  Duluth,  and  to  secure,  if  possible, 
the  co-operation  of  the  legislative  delegations  from  the 
three  counties.  Judge  Cleland,  of  Chicago,  gladly  ac- 
cepted an  urgent  invitation  to  address  a  mass-meeting, 

390 


MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

and  in  December,  before  a  congregation  that  filled  Park 
Church,  he  delivered  an  address  not  only  highly  inter- 
esting and  instructive,  but  a  revelation  to  those  fortunate 
enough  to  hear  it.  Following  his  address,  which  was 
held  under  the  auspices  of  the  Park  Brotherhood,  a 
meeting,  presided  over  by  Judge  Finehout,  was  held,  at 
which  were  present  a  large  number  of  the  leading  busi- 
ness and  professional  men.  At  this  meeting  the  Minne- 
sota Probation  League  was  organized.  Enthusiastic  sup- 
port was  assured  from  Minneapolis,  Duluth,  and  other 
parts,  and  a  committee,  consisting  of  Assistant  Attorney 
General  Peterson,  Judge  Waite  of  the  Municipal  Court 
of  Minneapolis,  and  Judge  Finehout  of  St.  Paul,  was 
appointed  to  draft  an  adult  probation  suspended  sen- 
tence law.  Judge  Waite  is  not  only  known  as  an  able, 
efficient  judge,  but  a  deep  student,  and  has  been  for  a 
long  time  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  suspended  sentence. 
It  was  through  his  efforts  that  the  Social  Science  Club 
of  Minneapolis  and  many  prominent  charity  workers 
in  that  city  were  interested,  and  by  their  efforts  gave 
efficient  aid  in  the  passage  of  this  law.  A  satisfactory 
bill  was  drafted  and  introduced  into  the  Legislature. 
On  account  of  the  splendid  support,  through  the  inter- 
est aroused  by  the  Brotherhood,  early  in  April  it  be- 
came a  law  through  the  signature  of  the  late  Governor 
Johnson.  Judge  Finehout  reports  that  during  the  first 
nine  months  in  which  this  law  has  been  in  effect,  out 
of  two  hundred  and  seven  cases  in  only  seventeen  was 
it  necessary  to  enforce  the  suspended  sentence  or  did 
the  report  from  the  probation  officers  show  that  the  pro- 
bation had  been  ineffective  in  securing  the  reform  de- 
sired.^^ 

The  earliest  social  achievements  of  modern    church 
brotherhoods  taught  them  the  value  of  co-operation  in 


13  •'The    Brotherhood    Star,"    June,    1911,    "Minnesota    Brotherhood 
Wins  a  Brotherly  Law." 

391 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

civic  undertakings.  The  Better  Brattleboro  Campaign, 
described  elsewhere  in  this  volume,  leagued  together  the 
various  churchmen's  organizations  of  the  community 
and  used  them  as  a  compact  force  standing  together  in 
behalf  of  goodness.  Other  similar  successes  were  won 
in  the  same  way,  and  the  present  development  of  the 
idea  of  Christian  federation  for  social  service  is  such 
as  to  give  expectation  of  exceptional  progress  in  com- 
munity building.  The  time  threatens  to  arrive  when 
the  saloon  will  no  longer  be  the  political  unit  of  society. 
The  church  brotherhood  or  club  may  take  its  place  if 
it  wills  to  do  so,  and  the  imagination  thrills  with  the 
picture  of  what  will  happen  when  Christianity  exerts 
the  power  which  it  possesses  and  that  which  it  can  ally 
with  itself  when  it  forms  a  definite  program  and  asserts 
its  strength.  When  the  effects  of  the  partisan  chloro- 
form by  which  Christian  men  have  long  been  lulled  into 
moral  inactivity  have  passed  away,  and  when  the  mutual 
jealousies  of  the  Churches  are  overcome  by  one  absorb- 
ing passion  for  the  Kingdom  of  Christ,  great  burdens 
of  wrong  will  be  lifted,  and  deadly  vices  will  be  swept 
away  by  the  expression  of  an  undivided  and  indivisible 
Christian  sentiment  and  sense. 

The  thought  Men  and  Christianity  implies  the  con- 
ception of  Brotherhood,  an  ideal  in  which  the  highest 
humanity  and  the  Christianity  of  Jesus  Christ  are  one, 
but  to  which  man  never  comes  without  the  aid  of  the 
Divine  Spirit.  But  Christian  brotherhood  needs  to  be 
defined  in  modern  terms,  and  to  be  expressed  in  con- 
crete and  practical  forms.  Country  churches  are  not 
unwise,  nor  are  they  untrue  to  their  high  calling  in  dis- 
playing intelligent  interest  in  the  work  of  agriculture. 
The  convention  speaker  reported  Christian  work  who 
said,  **The  Presbyterian  Church  at  Vincennes,  Ind.,  has 
undertaken  as  one  of  its  side  issues  the  maintaining  of 
the  farmers'  institute,  which  had  fallen  into  disuse  in 

392 


MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

that  community,  and  has  created  out  of  nothing  a  popu- 
lous and  influential  school  of  scientific  farming. ' '  *  *  The 
relations  between  the  rural  economy*  and  the  country 
Church/'  he  said,  ''are  so  delicate  and  so  intimate  that 
the  one  can  more  than  double  the  value  of  the  other."" 
"Without  a  doubt  the  Church  of  Christ  ought  to  be  an 
economic  force  in  every  community,  not  only  furnish- 
ing moral  equipment  for  the  most  effective  work,  but,  if 
possible,  helping  the  worker  to  obtain  whatever  knowl- 
edge or  skill  will  enable  him  to  make  the  most  of  his 
opportunities. 

It  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference  to  Christianity 
whether  or  not  men  are  profitably  employed,  or  whether 
they  are  employed  or  not.  The  nature,  profitableness, 
and  permanency  of  the  occupations  which  men  pursue 
have  marked  effects  upon  their  character  and  deeds.^' 
Speaking  of  the  apprehension  of  loss  of  work,  and  there- 
fore of  income,  on  the  part  of  a  large  class  of  toilers, 
Professor  Rauschenbusch  says,  *  *  Constant  insecurity  and 
fear  pervading  the  entire  condition  of  the  working  peo- 
ple is  like  a  corrosive  chemical  that  disintegrates  their 
self-respect.''  He  recalls  also  his  observation  of  the 
effect  of  financial  stringency  upon  moral  conduct:  ** Dur- 
ing the  great  industrial  crisis  in  the  90 's  I  saw  good 
men  go  into  disreputable  lines  of  employment."  **One 
could  hear  human  virtue  crumbling  and  cracking  all 

"  "Presbyterian  Men,"  p.  134.  Address  of  Warren  H,  Wilson,  Ph.D., 
at  the  St.  Louis  Convention,  Presbyterian  Brotherhood. 

"That  the  Church  should  take  in  hand  the  ethics  of  business  is 
earnestly  taught  by  Washington  Gladden  in  "The  Labor  Question," 
pp.  158-9.  "It  will  be  admitted,"  he  says,  "that  the  chief  interest 
of  the  Church  is  in  character.  Its  business  in  the  world  is  primarily 
the  production  of  good  character,  the  building  up  of  sound,  clear, 
upright,  neighborly  men.  In  this  commercial  age  such  character  is 
mainly  made  or  lost  in  the  pursuits  of  industry.  Whether  a  business 
man  becomes  a  good  man  or  not,  depends  mainly  on  the  way  in  which 
he  manages  his  business.  The  Church  has  in  her  membership  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  men  whose  characters  are  being  formed  by  their  business 
practices.  She  owes  to  these  the  instruction  and  the  moral  guidance 
by  which  they  may  be  saved  from  the  fatal  losses  of  manhood  to  whick 
th«y  are  exposed,  and  established  in  virtue  and  honor." 

393 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

around."^®  It  is  very  easy,  but  it  is  not  very  Christian, 
to  condemn  this  weakness;  moreover,  it  is  well  to 
labor  for  the  removal  of  the  occasion  of  evil-doing,  even 
though  it  is  believed  that  the  cause  lies  deeper.  And 
he  who  would  reach  the  hearts  of  men  with  the  trans- 
forming power  of  Christ  may  find  that  the  surest  way 
to  accomplish  this  is  by  seeking  to  aid  the  worker  in 
his  work  or  in  getting  work.  **In  Rochester,'''  says 
Professor  Graham  Taylor,  *'the  men  were  out  of  work 
for  many  months.  A  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion man  went  around  with  a  petition  to  get  the  citj^ 
to  put  the  unemployed  at  some  needed  public  work.  He 
happened  into  a  labor  meeting.  They  did  n't  know  him, 
nor  he  them,  but  they  were  talking  about  him.  One 
man  said:  **It  seems  to  me  as  though  Jesus  Christ  had 
died  again.  Nobody  seems  to  care  whether  we  or  our 
families  have  any  living  or  not.  But  I  heard  that  a 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  man  is  getting  out 
a  petition  to  have  the  city  put  a  lot  of  us  to  work. 
Boys,  Jesus  Christ  must  have  come  to  life  again.  He 
must  have  risen  from  the  dead  again.  "^^ 

The  conditions  under  which  business  and  labor  are 
done  need  the  attention  of  Christian  experts.  Somehow 
the  way  of  living  must  be  made  more  compatible  with 
the  ''way  of  life."  This  is  true  both  as  to  questions  of 
honesty  and  as  to  class  obligation.  The  loss  in  human 
kindliness  and  in  fellowship  by  reason  of  the  misunder- 
standings between  capital  and  labor  is  one  of  the  chief 
obstacles  to  Christian  progress.  The  Church  can  not 
overcome  this  by  ignoring  or  by  belittling  the  issue, 
by  hiding  its  head  in  the  sand,  or  by  giving  missionary 
teas.  For  his  own  soul's  sake  the  Church  must  teach 
altruism  to  the  capitalist  and  employer.    He  can  not  be 

M  •'Christianity  and  the  Social  Crisis,"  op.  cit.,  pp.  237,  238. 

""Men   and  Religion,"    published   for  the   Men   and  Beligion   For- 
ward Movement,  p.  154. 

394 


MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

saved  without  loving  his  brother,  nor  will  he  love  his 
brother  unless  the  Church  loves  him,  and  seeks  to  un- 
derstand his  many  problems  and  to  help  him  to  solve 
them.  Men  are  looking  to  Christianity  for  light  and 
for  leading.  They  expect  to  be  taught  how  to  do  justice 
to  each  other  and  to  all  men — ^how  to  be  brothers.  Not 
all  reaUy  wish  the  truth,  or  welcome  it  when  it  comes; 
but  they  expect  to  receive  it  from  the  Church  of  Christ, 
and  gradually  it  leavens  the  mass.  The  church  brother- 
hood which  doles  out  charity  but  does  not  teach 
brotherhood  is  in  a  little  business.  The  great  task  of 
Christianity  is  to  teach  men  to  live  together.  The  great 
task  is  not  to  teach  divinity,  but  right  relations.  As 
Dr.  McConnell  has  said,  *'The  Church  can  get  along 
with  fewer  arguments  about  the  divineness  of  Chris- 
tianity, if  she  can  prevail  upon  men  to  assume  that 
Christ  is  the  way,  the  truth,  and  the  life,  and  to  walk 
therein. ' '  ^^ 

Socialism?  Yes,  but  what  socialism?  Socialism 
seems  to  many  to  be  coming  fast.  Therefore  they  are 
asking,  Is  it  to  be  purely  economic  or  ethical,  material- 
istic or  spiritual?  Are  we  to  have  the  socialism  of  or- 
ganized selfishness  or  the  socialism  of  Christian  philan- 
thropy? 

Certainly  the  Church  must  see,  as  Professor  Eucken 
says,  *'with  the  socialist  solution  (of  the  problem  of 
life)  we  must  indeed  join  issue.  Prom  the  philosophical 
point  of  view  it  merits  the  sharpest  criticism.  All 
thought  and  all  effort  are  made  to  serve  the  one  end  of 
satisfying  the  loud  demand  of  the  masses  for  a  larger 

""Religious'  Certainty,"  President  Francis  J.  McConnell,  p.  108. 
"She  ought  to  look  upon  herself  as  a  laboratory  for  practice  in  right- 
eousness, for  out  of  righteousness  comes  that  abiding  and  increasing 
certainty  of  the  presence  of  God  which  nothing  can  shake."  Dr.  Grenfell, 
in  "What  the  Church  Means  to  Me,"  p.  13,  says,  "That  which  attracts 
to  a  Church  to-day  is  not  higher  criticism,  elaborate  ritual,  hair-splitting 
creeds,  but  fearless  fighting  for  public  health,  for  good  government,  for 
righteous  labor  conditions,  for  clean  courts  of  justice." 

395 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

share  of  power  and  happiness,  and  the  scope  of  human 
experience  is  thus  unduly  narrowed.  Socialism,  by; 
eagerly  seizing  and  using  everything  that  promises  to 
further  its  main  end,  takes  up  and  masses  together  quite 
uncritically  the  most  diverse  and  even  contradictory 
systems.  Materialism  and  sensualism  of  the  shallowest 
kind  find  favor  because  they  seem  to  be  subversive  of 
the  traditional  religion,  and  yet  these  movements  in 
themselves,  being  products  of  an  over-ripe  civilization, 
are  certainly  not  adapted  to  the  task  of  fostering  en- 
thusiasm for  new  ideals. ''^^  But  without  new  and  spir- 
itual ideals  and  aspirations  man  degenerates  and  society 
decays. 

Very  profound  students  may  be  quoted  who  believe 
that  the  only  way  to  prevent  the  Socialism  of  Karl  Marx, 
which  bases  the  whole  character  of  life  upon  economic 
relations,  from  sweeping  through  the  world  and  from 
overthrowing  not  merely  capitalism,  but  the  most  valued 
institutions  of  society,  is  to  hasten  forward  the  day 
and  deeds  of  the  socialism  of  Jesus  Christ.  A  world- 
wide brotherhood,  which  finds  its  inspiration  in  the  obli- 
gations and  sanctions  of  Christianity,  and  which  seeks 
not  merely  universal  prosperity,  but  that  substantial 
goodness  of  heart  without  which  material  wealth  is  a 
curse,  alone  will  produce  a  type  of  society  satisfactory 
to  men  and  permanent  in  its  gifts  to  human  life. 

The  problem  of  Christian  brotherhood  and  of  Chris- 
tian citizenship  is  a  problem  of  recruiting  for  Christ. 
Therefore  the  first  business  of  the  Church  is  to  bring 
Christ  and  men  together.  The  earlier  part  of  this  dis- 
cussion indicated  that  progress  is  being  made  in  men's 
evangelism.  Causes  of  indifference  to  religion  have  been 
studied  with  a  view  to  a  better  understanding  of  con- 
ditions and  forces  which  keep  men  out  of  the  Church 

"  "The  Problem  of  Human  Life,"  Rudolf  Eucken,  pp.  547-8. 

396 


MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

and  out  of  the  reach  of  the  gospel.  It  has  been  found 
that  the  census  does  not  explain  the  preponderance  of 
women  in  church  attendance  and  meirbership,  since 
this  occurs  in  communities  in  which  men  largely  pre- 
dominate. **The  remark  of  male  conceit  that  men  are 
more  intellectual  than  women,  and  so  are  slower  to  yield 
to  the  mysteries  of  faith,  does  not  explain  it ;  for  college 
records  do  not  warrant  the  claim  of  man's  superior- 
•^y  >>2o  rpjjg  charge  of  lack  of  masculinity  in  the  pulpit 
receives  scant  credence  from  those  who  are  widely  ac- 
quainted with  modern  preachers.  Many  thoughtful  per- 
sons find  the  answer  to  their  quest  concerning  the  ab- 
sence of  large  numbers  of  men  from  the  Church  in  the 
greater  temptations  than  those  of  women  to  which  they 
are  subjected  from  boyhood,  in  the  absorptions  of  busi- 
ness in  an  age  of  closest  competitions,  in  the  aggressive- 
ness of  substitutes  for  Christian  brotherhood  such  as 
clubs,  lodges,  and  secular  societies,^^  in  the  inconsisten- 
cies of  men  in  the  Church  whose  lives,  as  they  daily 
witness  them,  are  patterned  after  the  Daniel  Drew  phi- 
losophy, that  **a  good  tree  may  have  crooked  roots," 
in  the  alleged  necessity  for  the  practice  of  anti-Christian 
principles  in  trade  and  in  the  professions.  Probably 
some  one  or  more  of  these  ideas  may  furnish  illumina- 
tion to  those  who  think  upon  this  subject,  but  experi- 
ence teaches  that  despite  all  criticism  and  restraints  the 
Church  gets  men  when  the  men  of  the  Church  combine 
and  go  after  them.  *'Go  ye,'*  is  the  divinely  appointed 
method  of  evangelism,  and  Church  brotherhoods  have 
always  found  that  obedience  to  the  divine  calling  to  per- 
sonal evangelism  is  the  effective  means  of  adding  to  their 

20  "Letters  on  Evangelism,"  Bishop  Edwin  H.  Hughes,  p.  83. 

21  "A  Young  Man's  Questions,"  Robert  E.  Speer,  pp.  48-9.  *'They 
are  no  substitutes  for  the  Church.  They  have  all  the  defects  alleged 
against  the  Church  without  its  virtues,  and  every  reason  for  not  joining 
the  Church  urged  by  their  members  is  ignored  in  joining  them." 

397 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

own  membership  and  to  the  number  of  the  servants  of 
Christ. 

But  individualism  is  under  attact.  The  theory  is 
that  time  spent  on  single  souls  is  lost :  we  are  to  be  sol- 
diers of  the  common  good,  centering  all  on  the  mass, 
laboring  only  for  general  results.  Despite  the  element 
of  truth  which  underlies  this  conception  of  the  need 
of  the  hour  it  must  be  strongly  condemned.  **In  resist- 
ing this  horrible  theory  of  the  Soul  of  the  Hive,''  says 
Mr.  Chesterton,  "we  of  Christendom  stand  not  for  our- 
selves, but  for  all  humanity;  for  the  essential  and  dis- 
tinctive human  idea  that  one  good  and  happy  man  is 
an  end  in  himself,  that  a  soul  is  worth  saving.  "^^  Jesus 
Christ  orientated  Himself  in  the  sphere  of  individual- 
ism, and  He  has  moved  greater  masses  and  His  influence 
has  produced  more  universal  good  than  has  resulted 
from  any  other  life.  His  disciples  will  do  well  to  follow 
Him,  in  method  as  well  as  in  spirit. 

If  anywhere  personal  evangelism  has  been  at  all 
thorough  and  persistent  it  is  in  the  home,  in  the  Sun- 
day school,  and  in  the  college;  and  it  is  this  work,  as 
tested  in  the  universities,  which  shows  the  most  reassur- 
ing gains  in  the  proportion  of  men  who  have  accepted 
Christ.  A  very  careful  writer  says  that  every  year  the 
proportion  of  students  who  are  Christians  when  enter- 
ing college  rises.  If  this  is  true,  even  of  a  majority  of 
years,  it  is  an  encouraging  sign  of  good  influence  in  the 
homes  and  churches  represented  by  these  students.  The 
same  author  reports  a  careful  census  taken  in  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty-six  colleges  and  universities  of  North 
America,  and  which  showed  that  of  eighty-three  thou- 
sand young  men  attending  these  institutions  fifty-two 
per  cent  were  members  of  evangelical  Churches.  The 
year  previous  a  canvass  of  the  men  seniors  of  sixty-four 

»  "What's  Wrong  With  the  World?"   G.  K.  Chesterton,  p.  333. 

398 


MEN  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

colleges  showed  that  seventy-four  per  cent  of  them  were 
professing  Christians.^^  If  a  similar  ratio  of  increase 
in  the  senior  class  applies  to  all  the  institutions  of  higher 
learning,  it  must  be  that  the  personal  effort  for  individu- 
als encouraged  by  the  college  associations  and  churches 
is  taking  effect.  John  R.  Mott  is  quoted  as  saying, 
*'The  colleges  and  universities  constitute  without  doubt 
the  most  religious  communities  in^our  country,"  and  if 
the  men  of  the  colleges  are  being  won  for  Christ,  the  fact 
is  an  augury  of  the  future  conquest  by  Christianity  of 
all  classes  of  men. 

The  brotherhoods  of  the  Churches  and  their  auxilia- 
ries and  federations  are  a  force  which  is  equal  to  the 
issues  of  a  new  Christian  crusade  passing  all  knightly 
contests  and  glories.  The  peril  of  these  organizations 
is  that  their  nature  and  work  may  become  more  social 
than  fraternal  or  evangelistic;  their  apotheosis  will  be 
in  a  New  Devotion  surpassing  that  of  a  Kempis  and 
Francis  in  its  diffusion  among  the  members  of  the  body, 
as  well  as  in  its  constant  loyalty  to  the  person  and  call 
of  Jesus,  and  which  will  lay  hold  of  destructive  human 
forces  and  turn  them  into  the  instruments  of  the  eternal 
will.  **  Passions  that  are  working  havoc  and  ruin  are 
to  be  made  the  nourishers  of  fine  endeavor  and  holy 
work.  All  men's  gifts  and  powers,  and  all  material 
forces  are  to  be  used  in  the  employment  of  the  King- 
dom of  God."^*  Is  this  an  ideal  and  a  dream?  At 
least  it  is  a  good  ideal,  and  the  Dream  is  Divine.  It  is 
something  for  which  they  cry  to  God  who  believe  that 

»*'The  Churches  and  Educated  Men,"  E,  N,  Hardy,  pp.  187-201. 
The  chapters  on  "The  Modern  Awakening"  and  "The  Present  Outlook" 
are  very  encouraging. 

2*  "The  Passion  for  Souls,"  J.  H.  Jowett,  p.  126.  Bishop  J.  F. 
Berry's  movement  to  pledge  Methodist  Episcopal  laymen  to  definite  acts 
of  devotion  was  one  of  many  recent  valuable  attempts,  made  in  various 
Churches,  to  actualize  the  latter  sentence  of  this  quotation. 

399 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERHOODS 

orare  est  Idborare.  Moreover,  they  toil  for  this  who 
stand  in  the  hard  places  in  the  centers  of  strife  betwixt 
good  and  evil,  and  who  need  the  encouragement  of  others 
who  have  been  convinced  of  the  wisdom  and  of  the  hope- 
fulness   of    the    effort.       Kat    av    ttotc    CTrto-Tpei/^as    a-rqpi^ov 

Tovs  d8eA</>ovs  aov.  Thus,  in  mutual  confidence,  in  strong 
determination,  and  in  the  masterful  leading  of  the  Son 
of  God,  will  be  brought 

•*To  see  and  hear  and  aid  God's  worship 
Unnumbered  tongues,  a  host  of  Christian  men." 


400 


INDEX 


Abbot,  Superior  of  monastery,  25; 
authority,  26;  Cluny,  35;  char- 
ity, 35;  Stephen's  message  to 
Christ,  40,  note;  Grande  Trappe, 
42;  political,  42,  and  note. 

Acoemeti,  Sleepless  monks,  24. 

Aemiliani,  educational  founder, 
168. 

Albert  of  Brandenburg,  Protestant 
Grandmaster,  Knights  of  Christ, 
69. 

Albigenses,  53,  70. 

Alderman,  Head  of  trade-guild, 
100. 

Alexian  Brothers,  Sketch,  130. 

Alexius,  Hospital  worker  of 
Edessa,  130. 

Alith,  Alethe,  or  Aletta,  mother  of 
Bernard  39 

Alms,  35,  55,  64,  89, 115,  note,  143. 

Alombrados,  Spanish  Illuminati, 
107. 

Ambrose,  related  to  Western  Mon- 
achism,  27;  influence  on  Augus- 
tine, 28;  opposed  corruption,  29. 

Ambulance  Association,  St.  John's, 
London,  67;  Misericordia,  Flor- 
ence, 126. 

American  Federation  of  Catholic 
Societies,  202,  384. 

American  Guild  of  Organists,  369. 

American  Minute  Men,  262. 

American  Protective  Association, 
261. 

Anabaptists,  Later  Lollards,  87. 

Anchorets,  21. 

Andreae,  or  Andreas,  reputed  au- 
thor Fama  Fratemitas,  105;  real 
history,  106. 

Angelic  Warfare  Society,  201. 

Anthony,  first  noted  hermit  by 
choice,  22fiF. 

Anti-Saloon  League,  262flF. 

Antonines,  Hospital  Brothers  of 
St.  Anthony,  121. 


Apostles,  their  fraternal  teachings, 
13. 

Apostolic  Men,  see  Beghards. 

Avians,  23,  27,  note. 

Armenians,  Bartholomites,  25. 

Arthur,  King,  Spurious  Order  of, 
58. 

Asceticism,  20,  21,  30,  33,  43,  54, 
79,  81,  136. 

Association,  mutual  aid,  14;  ne- 
cessity promotes,  99;  profes- 
sional, 101;  religious,  119. 

Association  of  Lay  Helpers,  226, 
233. 

Aihanasius,  23,  25,  27,  and  note. 

Augustine,  Connected  with  West- 
em  Monachism,  27;  founder  of 
orders,  28;  opposed  corruption, 
29;  Knights  Templars'  rule,  59; 
mysticism,  80;  influence  on 
Luther,  80;  Antonines,  122; 
Order  Holy  Ghost,  123;  Trin- 
itarians 123;  Brothers  Hospital- 
ers of  St.  John  of  God,  131; 
Crossed  Friars,  140. 

Augustinians,  Hermits  of  fourth 
century,  27,  28,  45;  Luther  a 
member,  28;  Canons,  28;  Mendi- 
cants, 45;  Hospitalers  become, 
64;  Teutonic  Knights,  68; 
Knights  of  the  Cross,  70. 

Austin,  22,  note;  canons,  28. 

Avengers,  of  Sicily,  105. 


Baldwin  I,  King  of  Jerusalem, 
probable  founder  Knights  of 
Holy  Sepulchre,  58. 

Baldwin  II,  King  of  Jerusalem, 
gives  home  to  Knights  Temp- 
lars, 60  and  note;  and  Hos- 
pitalers, 64.  '^.- 

Baptist  Brotherhood,  336. 

Baptist  Clubs,  360. 

Baptista,  Juan,  Founder  Discalced 
Trinitarians,  123,  note. 


26 


401 


INDEX 


Baraca,  The,  magazine,  302. 

Baraca  Union,  296ff. 

Bare-footed  Friars,  Franciscans,  50. 

Barnabites,  145. 

Barriere,  John  de  la,  founder 
Feuillants,  42. 

Bartholomites,  of  Genoa,  25;  Holz- 
hauser's  order  in  Germany,  25, 
note. 

Bartoli,  Professor  G.,  Waldensian 
Convert,  74. 

Basil  the  Great,  modifies  rule  .of 
Anthony,  24,  25. 

Banian  inonks,  24flF. 

Bassi,  Matteo  di,  founder  Capu- 
chins, 52. 

Bath,  Order  of,  British,  58. 

Beati  Paoli,  Blessed  Pauls,  fra- 
ternity of  Justice,  105. 

Beghards,  sketch,  74ff;  Alexians 
related,  130. 

Behmen,  noted  mystic,  83. 

Benard,  founder  Maurists,  170. 

Benedict,  displaced  rule  of  Basil, 
25;  also  of  Augustine,  28;  life 
and  works,  30ff. 

Benedict  of  Aniane,  united  monas- 
teries, 35. 

Benedictine  Order,  founded,  31  ff; 
Hospitalers,  64;  Maurists,  170; 
Protestants,  235. 

Benefit  Clubs,  14,  196ff,  221,  260, 
322,  365. 

Benezet,  founder  of  Bridge-build- 
ers, 120. 

Benizi,  Philips,  head  of  Servites, 
55. 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  life  and  in- 
fluence, 39ff;  revises  rules  of 
Knights  Templars,  61  and  note. 

Bernard  of  QuintavaUe,  disciple  of 
St.  Francis,  50. 

Bemardines,  41. 

Bertrand,  Count  of  Limoges,  cru- 
sader and  founder  of  Carmelites, 
45. 

Berull,  founder  French  oratory, 
150. 

Betencourt,  Pierre  de,  founder 
Bethlehemites,  132. 

Bethlehemites,  two  military  orders, 
71;  third  order,  132. 

Bible  Classes  for  Men,  organized, 
305.  306. 


Black  Company,  attended  crimi- 
nals to  execution,  128. 

Black  Death  at  Strasburg  and  else- 
where, 82,  130  and  note. 

Black  Friars,  Dominicans  in  Eng- 
land, 52. 

Blackham,  John,  founder  of  Pleas- 
ant Sunday  Afternoon  Brother- 
hood, 279.  ^ 

B'nai  Q'ydmd,  Sons  of  the  Cove- 
nant, 22. 

Bohemia,  Ejiights  of,  59,  70; 
crusaders,  70. 

Bohemian  Brethren,  143. 

Boni  Homines,  138,  139. 

Borromeo,  founder  Oblales,  ISOfif; 
missionaries,  159. 

Borsi,  Piero  Di  Luca,  founder  of 
Misericordia,  125. 

Bosco,  educator,  183. 

Boys,  Benedict  at  14,  30;  Hugh  of 
Avalon,  37;  Bernard,  39,  40, 
and  note;  Nivard,  40;  folly  of 
Francis,  47;  piety  of  Dominic, 
53;  Thomas  3.  Kempis,  92; 
Ben6zet,  120;  Peter  Borsi,  125; 
John  of  God,  130;  Romuald,  137; 
Mather,  210;  Williams,  248; 
conversion,  373. 

Brandenburg,   Hospitalers   of,   69. 

Brethren  of  Christian  Love,  French 
Brothers  Hospitalers  St.  John 
of  God,  132. 

Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit,  radical 
mystics,  76ff;  anti-clerical  and 
extreme,  77. 

Brethren  of  Holy  Trinity,  see 
Trinitarians. 

Brethren  of  Mercy,  German  Broth- 
ers Hospitalers  St.  John  of  God, 
132. 

Brethren  of  the  Sack,  140. 

Brethren  of  St.  Charles,  educa- 
tional, 175. 

Brethren  of  the  Temple,  EInights 
Templars,  61, 

Bridge-builders,  Fratres  Pontifices, 
120,121. 

Brigittines,  142. 

Brotherhood,  a  Christian  product, 
7;  evidence  to  Christianity,  8; 

*  universal,  11;  early  church,  13, 
14,  and  notes,  15,  note;  spirit, 
346;  spiritual  origin,  392;  church 


402 


INDEX 


muslf  teach,  395;  substitutes, 
397. 

Brother  John,  follower  of  St. 
Francis,  51. 

Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip^ 
291ff. 

Brotherhood  of  the  Disciples  of 
Christ,  344ff. 

Brotherhood  Era,  magazine,  341, 
361,  note. 

Brotherhood  of  the  Imitation  of 
Jesus,  370ff. 

Brotherhood  of  the  Kingdom,  367. 

Brotherhood  of  the  Red  Diamond, 
296. 

Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew,  In 
England,  231;  237ff. 

Brotherhood  of  St.  Thmnas,  Eng- 
lish, 71,  100. 

Brotherhood  Star,  magazine,    292. 

Brotherhood  of  St.  Paul.,  318;  bene- 
fit branches,  365. 

Brotherhoods,  how  judged,  7,  9; 
broad  scope  of  Christian,  8; 
methods  taught  by  history,  9; 
misrepresented,  10;  co-opera- 
tion, 10;  origin,  13;  first  society, 
15;  corruption,  30;  honor,  38; 
Initiation,  57;  reform,  216; 
Democratic,  Chapter  XVI;  In- 
ternational Crusade,  274;  and 
pastor,  353;  German  Protestant, 
357;  doctrinal,  357;  local,  359ff; 
organists,  369;  federation,  383ff; 
civic  reforms,  389ff;  legislation, 
390ff;  secular,  397  and  note; 
peril,  secularity,  399. 

Brother  houses,  not  convents,  89. 

Brothers,  13  and  note,  14;  not 
fathers,  44;  Knights  Templars, 
60. 

Brothers  by  Blood,  how  made,  57. 

Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction, 
181. 

Brothers  of  Christian  Schools,  175ff. 

Brothers  of  Common  Life,  or  Lot, 
sketch,  88ff. 

Brothers  of  the  Golden  Rosy  Cross, 
offshoot   of   Rosicrucians,    107. 

Brothers  of  the  Holy  Infancy,  183. 

Brothers  of  Holy  Spirit,  see  Order 
of  Holy  Ghost. 

Brothers  Hospitalers  of  St.  John 
of  God,  sketch,  ISOff. 


Brothers   of   Hospitality,   Spanish 

Brothers     Hospitalers     of     St. 

John  of  God,  132. 
Brothers  of  the  Law  of  Christ,  143. 
Brothers  of  the  Misericordia,  sketch, 

124ff. 
Brothers  of  Nazareth,  232,  233. 
Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of  Lourdes, 

183. 
Brothers  of  Sincerity,  educational, 

164. 
Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel,  educational, 

178. 
Brothers  of  the  Sword,   Llvoniaa 

Military  order,  59,  69. 
Bruno,  founder  Carthusians,  36. 
Bufalo,  missionary  founder,  157. 
Burial  Guilds,  the  first,  14, 17. 
Burial  Society,  365. 
Bus,  C6sar  de,  founder  Christian 

Doctrine,  169. 
Business  Mens  Associations,  344. 


Cajetan,  foimder  Theatlns,  144. 

Calasanzio,  educational  founder, 
169. 

Calatrava,  Spanish  military  order, 
68. 

Caloyers,  or  Calogeri,  name  of 
Greek  monks,  25. 

Calvarines,  153. 

Camaldoli,  137. 

Canons,  Augustinian,  28;  Holy 
Sepulcher,  59. 

Captains  of  Holy  Mary,  127,  note. 

Capuchins,  Reformed  Franciscan 
Order,  52. 

Carboneri,  Charcoal-burners,  107. 

Carmelites,  Mendicant  Order,  45. 

Carthusians,  36ff;  and  Groote,  89; 
k  Kempis  on,  89,  note. 

Catholic  Benevolent  Legion,  197. 

Catholic  Knights  of  America,  196. 

Catholic  Mutual  Benefit  Associa- 
tion, 196. 

Catholic  Order  Foresters,  197. 

Catholic  Societies,  American  Feder- 
ation, 202. 

Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union, 
195: 

Catholic  Young  Men's  National 
Union,  201. 


403 


INDEX 


Celestinians,  141;  hermits,  142. 

CelliteSt  in  scattered  cells,  23; 
clustered  to  form  laura,  24; 
Basilians,  25;  Alexians,  130. 

Cenohites,  21,  23,  25. 

Chaminade,  fomider  Marianists, 
180. 

Champagnat,  Marist  educator,  181. 

Charity,  35;  St.  Hugh,  37;  Cister- 
cians, 37;  St.  Francis,  48;  Fran- 
ciscans, 50;  Dominic,  53;  Hos- 
pitalers, 64;  Behgards,  75; 
Friends  of  God,  79;  city,  sug- 
gested by  trade-giiilds,  98; 
Masons,  113;  societies,  115ff; 
public,  115;  not  best  form  dis- 
tribution, 117  and  note;  Hos- 
pitals, 1119;  Misericordia,  127, 
128;  note;  Columbini,  128; 
John  of  God,  131;  Bethlehem- 
ites,  132;  Beauty,  133;  false, 
133. 

Charles  the  Great,  spurious  order  of, 
58. 

Charpentierf  founder  Calvariiies, 
153. 

Chivalry,  influence  and  delight, 
56  and  note;  Knights  Templars, 
61;  woridliness,  62. 

Christ,  teaches  fraternity,  13;  imi- 
tation by  Mendicants,  44;  pas- 
sion, 49;  influence,  51;  bond  of 
brotherhood,  57,  note;  burial 
place,  59;  in  masonry,  112; 
social  teaching,  116;  example, 
122;  educator,  161. 

Christian  Brotherhood,  of  Andreae, 
106. 

Christian  Brothers  of  Ireland,  178. 

Christian  Commission,  257,  and 
note. 

Christian  Doctrine,  Orders,  168, 
169. 

Christian  Industrial  League,  260. 

Christian  Social   Union,  367. 

Christianity,  teaches  and  empowers 
altruism,  7. 

Christlicher-Jicnglingsverein,  221 , 

Christopher,  order  of,  144. 

Chrysostom,  connected  with  West- 
ern Monachism,  27. 

Church,  fratemalism,  8,  352;  true 
history,  9;  treasure,  11;  early 
a   brotherhood,    13;   collegium. 


14;  monachism  of  Eastern,  24; 
Bartholomites,  25;  at  close 
early  period,  29;  fortunes  shared 
by  brotherhoods,  34;  corrup- 
tion 10th  century,  34;  medi- 
aeval, 52;  and  knights,  57  and 
note;  wretchedness  14th  cen- 
tury, 87,  91;  trade-guilds,  101; 
masons,  112;  bridge-builders, 
120;  charity,  133  and  note; 
education,  163;  for  community, 
343;  advertise,  353. 

Church  Army,  236. 

Church  Association,  Labor,  366. 

Church  of  England  Men^s  Society, 
224ff. 

Church  of  England  Workingman^s 
Society,  226. 

Church  of  England  Young  Mens 
Society,  225. 

Church  of  Ireland  Men's  Society, 
229. 

Church  Laym£rC8  Union,  368. 

Church  News  Association,  383. 

Church  Social  Union,  366. 

Churchmen,  statistics,  379ff. 

Cistercians,  foxmding  and  history, 
38ff;  Bernard,  39ff;  Avarice,  62. 

Civic  Betterment,  388ff. 

Clergymen's  Muttud  Insurance 
League,  365. 

Clovis,  Legendary  founder  Order 
Holy  Grail,  58. 

Clubs,  benefit,  14;  Catholic,  199; 
Sunday  evening,  359;  national 
conference,  360;  functions,  362, 
363;  lead  to  brotherhoods,  363; 

Cluny,  union  of  monasteries,  35; 
charity  and  strength,  35;  re- 
form not  final,  44. 

Colin,  Marist  founder,  180. 

College  Brotherhoods,  218ff. 

College  Men,  interest  in  religion, 
398,  399. 

Collegia,  14;  Copiatae,  17;  Roman, 
96  and  note. 

Colliers,  see  Carbonari. 

Colomhini,  John,  founder  Jesuati, 
128. 

Commercial  Travelers'  Association, 
270. 

Common  Life,  see  Brothers  of,  88ff. 

Communism,  not  in  early  church, 
13,  note. 


404 


INDEX 


Compagnta  del  BigaUo,  sketch,  127. 

Companions  of  the  Holy  Saviour, 
232. 

Comrades  of  Paul,  345,  346. 

Confraternity,  definition,  119. 

Congregation,  definition,  119. 

Congregational  Brotherhood  of 
America,  339ff. 

Congregational  Clubs,  360. 

Congregational  Fellowship  Asso- 
ciations, 217. 

Conventuals,  ordinary  Franciscans, 
52. 

Conversion,  Anthony,  22;  Pacho- 
mius,  24;  Augustine,  28  and 
note;  Benedict,  30;  Bernard,  40; 
Brothers  and  uncle  of  Bernard, 
40;  Francis  of  Assisi,  47;  Nor- 
bert,  118;  Colombini,  128;  John 
of  God,  131;  Romuald,  137; 
Loyola,  146;  business  man,  298; 
cartman,  298;  Indians,  373. 

Co-operation,  273;  influence  of,  386. 

Copiatae,  early  brotherhood,  17; 
example  fruitful,  19. 

Cotton  Mather's  Societies,  209ff. 

Cowley  Fathers,  Anglican,  231. 

Craft-guilds,  98ff. 

Cretinet,  founder  Order  of  St. 
Joseph,  153. 

Crombnigghe,  founder  Order  of 
St.  Joseph,  154. 

Cross,  Holy,  see  Order  of. 

Cross-bearers,  see  Crucigeri. 

Crucigeri,  Italian  Cross-bearers, 
124. 

Crusaders  of  the  Red  Star,  Bo- 
hemian Military,  71. 

Crutched  Friars,  or  Crossed,  123, 
140. 

Cusani,  founder  Christian  Doc- 
trine. 168. 

D 

Danei,  see  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross. 

Defenders,  188. 

Democracy,  Mendicants  and  Meth- 
odists, 44;  Francis,  54,  note; 
Lollards,  85,  note;  labor  unions, 
102;  meanmg,  340. 

Desgenettes,  missionary  foimder, 
158. 

Desplaces,  founder  Order  Holy 
Ghost,  154. 


Deutsche  Union,  worthless  brother- 
hood, 108. 

Dinghy,  Harvey  E.,  first  President 
Methodist  Brotherhood,  319. 

Discalced  Trinitarians,  reformed 
order,  123,  note. 

Disciples  of  Christ,  Brotherhood, 
344ff. 

Distinguished  Service,  Order  of, 
British,  58. 

Divorce  Association,  National,  261. 

Dominic,  Domingo  de  Guzman, 
Mendicant  founder,  46;  life  and 
order,  52ff;  character,  53,  54; 
Order  Jesus  Christ,  70; 

Dominicans,  sought  religious  free- 
dom and  life,  45;  institution, 
52ff;  like  foimder,  54;  at  Con- 
stance, 81;  Tauler,  82. 

Drummond,  Henry,  282. 

Dujarie,  educator,  182. 


£ 


Eckhart,  Meister,  mystic  teacher, 
78,  81,  82. 

Education,  Brothers  of  Common 
Lot,  90;  Jesuit,  149,  166,  185, 
Borromeo,  151;  Christianity  re- 
founds,  161;  Christian,  162;  as- 
cetic, 162;  Knightly,  164;  Com- 
mon Life,  165;  reformers,  167; 
Maurist,  170;  Pietist,  173; 
Catholic.  183ff;   universal,  279. 

Egidio,  follower  of  St.  Francis,  51. 

Ephraem  Syrus,  25. 

Episcopal  Clubs,  361ff. 

Eranoi,  or  Thiasoi,  Grecian  guild, 
96. 

Eremites,  Syrian,  21,  see  Hermits. 

Essenes,  relation  of,  to  monachism, 
20. 

Eucharist,  Tabennites,  24,  25; 
savages  converted  to,  26;  port- 
able of  Mendicants,  44;  used 
as  pledge  of  brotherhood,  57 
and  note;  Knights  of  Cross,  70 
and  note. 

Eudes,  Jean,  152. 

Eudists,  152. 

Eu^ebius  of  Vercelli,  early  Western 
monastic,  27. 

Evangelical  Men,  see  Lollards,  85. 

Evangelism,  Every-Day,  388, 


405 


INDEX 


Evangelism,  personal  of  Bernard, 
40;  devoted  of  Mendicants  and 
Methodists,  44;  Franciscans,  51; 
Lay,  74;  Gideons,  269;  progress, 
396;  divine  method,  397;  worth 
of  individual,  398. 

Evona,  see  Yves. 

Evora,  Portuguese  military  order, 
68. 

F 

Faith-guilds,  see  Peace  Guilds. 

Fama  Fraternitas,  chief  work  of 
Rosicrucians,  105. 

Father  Ignatius,  Protestant  monk, 
235. 

Father  of  St.  Bernard,  39  and  note; 
Francis,  48. 

Fathers  of  Charity,  see  Rosinians. 

Fathers  of  Christian  Doctrine,  168. 

Fathers  of  Mercy,  157. 

Fathers  of  the  Pestilence,  132. 

Fathers  of  Somasquo,  168. 

Fathers  of  Victory,  144. 

Federation  of  Protestant  Brother- 
hoods, 383ff. 

Federation,  social  service,  392. 

Felix  of  Valois,  founder  Trini- 
tarians, 123. 

Fellowship  Unions,  217. 

Feuillants,  Congregation  of  the, 
42. 

Fidelity,  Order,  Baden,  58. 

Fishmongers^  Guild,  aristocratic, 
100. 

Flagellantes,  Whippers,  78;  Stras- 
burg,  82. 

Florentius,  disciple  of  Groote,  88ff; 
influence  on  a  Kempis,  92. 

Fontevraud,  Order  of,  139. 

Foresters,  religious  rites  of  Eng- 
lish, 101. 

Fossarii,  Grave-diggers,  17. 

Founders,  character  monastic,  28, 
61,  note. 

Francis  of  Assisi,  humility,  34; 
life  and  works,  46ff;  comparison 
with  Dominic,  54;  influence, 
371ff. 

Francis  de  Sales,  157. 

Francis  de  Paula,  f oimder  Minims, 
144. 

Franciscans,  sought  freer  and 
spiritual  religion,  45;  founding 


and  history,  50ff;  famous  mem- 
bers, 52;  like  founder,  54;  Holy 
Land,  59;  Blessed  Pauls,  105. 

Fraternity  of  Pythagoras,  20,  104 
and  note. 

Fratres  Praedicatores,  Dominicans, 
52. 

Freemasons,  and  Knights  of  St. 
John,  67;  origin,  103;  Illuminati, 
108;  sketch,  108ff;  Mormon, 
109. 

Friars,  Begging,  44;  not  fathers, 
44;  Minor  Franciscans,  50; 
Preachers,  52;  Knights,  59; 
luxuriousness,  62;  Crossed  or 
Crutched,  123,  note;  Protestant 
missionary,  371. 

Friars  of  Penance,  140. 

Friars  Preachers,  Dominicans,  52. 

Friars  of  Strict  Observance,  Austere 
Franciscans,  52  and  note. 

Friendly  Societies,  Scotland,  102; 
273;  Methodists,  317. 

Friends  of  God,  Mystical  brother- 
hood, 78ff;  influence,  89. 

Funerals,  17;  Alexians,  130. 


Gaston,  founder  of  Antonines,  121. 

Geoffrey  de  St.  Aldemar,  or  Omer, 
early  Knight  Templar,  60. 

Gerard,  rector  of  Hospitalers,  64. 

German  Brotherhoods,  221. 

German  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  356. 

Gideons,  Knights  of  the  Grip, 
organization,  265ff;  purpose, 
267ff;  membership,  268. 

Gild  of  the  Holy  Cross,  repaired 
roads  and  bridges,  121,  note. 

Gild  of  Lord's  Prayer,  98. 

Gilds  of  the  Kalendars,  ecclesiastic, 
98. 

Glorieux,  educational  founder,  183. 

Gnostic  Sects,  104,  107. 

Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  and  Hospital- 
ers, 63;  rejects  golden  crown,  63 
and  note. 

Godly  Club,  Oxford,  219. 

Gospel  of  the  Kingdom,  262. 

Grail,  Holy,  spurious  order,  58. 

Grand  Chartreuse,  famous  monas- 
tery, 36,  37. 

Grave-diggers,  17. 


406 


INDEX 


Gray  Friars,  Franciscans,  50. 
Grandmont,  Order  of,  138. 
Gregorian    Brethren,    educational, 

165. 
Groote,  Gerard,  founder  Brothers 

of  Common  Lot,  88ff . 
Guild  of  the  Holy  Standard,  226. 
Guild  of  St.  Matthew,  366. 
Guilds,  7;  Beghards,  75;  sketch, 

96ff;   Christianity  spreads,   96; 

organists,  369. 
Gualberto,    founder    Vallombrosa, 

138. 
Guerinets,  French  fanatics,  107, 
Guy  of  MontpeUier,  founder  Order 

Holy  Ghost,  123. 
Guzman,    Domingo    de,    founder 

Dominicans,  52ff. 


H 


Eaemerlein,  true' name  Thomas  k 
Kempis,  92. 

Harding,  Stephen,  lawgiver  of 
Cistercians,  38. 

Hardy,  Keir,  276. 

Harvard  Society,  218. 

Hecker,  Isaac,  founder  Paulist 
fathers,  158. 

Herman  von  Salza,  head  of  Teu- 
tonic Knights,  68. 

Hermits,  sought  union  of  soul  with 
Deity,  21;  Basilians,  25;  Augus- 
tinian,  27;  Luther,  28;  Carmel- 
ites, 45,  46;  Celestinian,  142. 

Hermits  of  St.  Francis,  144. 

Heroes,  love  for,  56,  note. 

Hibernians,  Ancient  Order,  191. 

Hilarion,  25. 

Hilton,  Walter,  English  mystic, 
92,  93  and  note. 

Historia  Lausiaca,  Tabennites,  24. 

Holy  Cross,  Anglican  Order,  232. 

Holy  Cross,  Congregation,  educa- 
tional, 182. 

Holy  Cross  of  Westminster,  232. 

Holy  Ghost,  see  Order  of. 

Holy  Ghost,  Congregation,  154. 

Holy  League,  187. 

Holy  Name  Society,  141,  201. 

Holy  Sepulchre,  Ejiights  of,  58ff. 

Holy   Trinity,  see  Trinitarians. 

Holy  Trinity,  Fraternity  of,  Neri, 
132. 


Holy  Vehm,  see  Vehmgericht. 

Holzhauser,  Bartholomew,  founder 
German  Bartholomites,  25,  note. 

Homines  Intelliqentiae,  78. 

Horneck,  Anthony,  brotherhood 
founder,  210ff. 

Horneck  Societies,  209flF. 

Hospital  Brothers  of  Si.  Anthony, 
see  Antonines. 

Hospitalers,  Military  Order,  found- 
ing and  history,  62fiF;  Tem- 
plars, 66. 

Hospitality,  early  church,  15,  35; 
Trappists,  43. 

Hospitals,  Institution  and  orders, 
119. 

Houghteling,  James  L.,  founder 
Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew,  238. 

House  of  Silence,  Trappist  monas- 
tery, 43. 

Houses  of  the  Temple,  abodes  of 
Knights  Templars,  61. 

Howard,  John,  visits  Malta,  67. 

Hudson,  Marshall  A.,  founder 
Baraca  Union,  296. 

HumUiati,  139. 

Humility,  Francis,  34,  48,  372; 
Hugh,  37;  Franciscans,  50; 
Knights,  57,  note;  lost  by  pros- 
perity, 61;  Florentius,  91;  Co- 
lombini,  128;  Stokes,  375,  376. 

Hugh  of  Avalon,  noted  Carthusian, 
37,  38. 

Hugh  de  Payens,  early  Knight 
Templar,  60. 

Huss,  John,  followers  oppose 
Knights,  70. 


Ignatius  of  Jesus,  see  Father  Ig- 
natius. 

Ignatius  Loyola,  54,  145ff. 

Illuminati,  see  lUuminism. 

lUuminism,  Men  of  Intelligence, 
78;  Friends  of  God,  79;  laws,  80; 
Illummati,  107ff. 

Imitation  of  Christ,  Greater  than 
author,  92;  criticism  and  praise, 
93flf. 

Influence,  great  souls,  11 ;  kindness, 
24;  self-torture,  26;  life  of 
Anthony,  27;  Ambrose,  28; 
Benedict,  31;  Hugh  and  Jews, 


407 


INDEX 


38;  i>ersonaI  of  Bernard,  40 
Francis,  49ff;  Dominic,  53 
Waldenses,  74;  Ruysbroek,  81: 
Lollards,  85,  note;  Kempis 
writings,  93,  94;  John  of  Avila, 
131;  Romuald,  137;  Augustine, 
172;  Francke.  174;  Pietism,  175; 
Father  Mathew,  194-5;  Brother- 
hood, 220;  "The  Men,"  358; 
Francis  of  Assisi,  371ff;  humil- 
ity, 376-7;  co-operation,  389; 
practical  aid,  394;  home  and 
church,  398. 

Inquisition,  Holy,  Dominic  called 
founder  of,  53;  denial  of  Dom- 
inic's relation  to,  54,  note;  under 
Dominicans,  54;  destroys  Flagel- 
lantes,  78;  destroys  Alombrados, 
107;  Celestinians  suffer,  142. 

Insurance  Alliance,  366. 

Insurance  Socie-ies,  mutual  aid 
in  Greece,  115;  brotherhood, 
318,  365. 

Interdenominational  Brotherhoods, 
291ff. 

International   Truth  Society,   201. 

Itinerants,  Mendicants  and  Meth- 
odists, 44. 


Jacobins,  Dominicans  in  Italy,  52. 

Jansenists,  171ff. 

Jansenius,  reformer,  172. 

Jerome,  on  founders  of  solitary 
life,  23;  connected  with  Western 
monachism,  27;  opposed  cor- 
ruption, 29. 

Jeronymites,  or  Hieronymites,  143. 

Jesuati,  or  Jesuates,  sketch,  128, 
129. 

Jesuits,  Society  of  Jesus,  monastic 
reform,  31;  dispossess  Common 
Life,  94;  opposition  of  Illumi- 
nati,  108;  sketch.  145ff.  See 
Education. 

John  of  God,  founder  Hospitalers 
of  St.  John  of  God,  130ff. 

John,  Knights  of  Saint,  63. 

John  de  Puebla,  founder  Strict 
Observance,  52,  note. 


Kabbalah,   Mysteries,   104;   Free- 
masons, 111. 


Kelly,  Chas.  H.,  founder  Soldiers* 
Homes,  314. 

Kempis,  Thomas  a,  50,  88,  92ff. 

Knigge,  Baron,  leader  Illuminati. 

Knight-errantry,  inspiration,  56. 

Knighthood,  high  qualities,  56; 
Christianity  influenced,  57  and 
note;  military  and  monastic,  57, 
58;  produced  orders  of  merit,  58. 

Knightly  Orders,  see  Military  Or- 
ders, Christian  in  origin,  56ff. 

Knights  of  Christ,  of  Livonia,  69. 

Knights  of  Columbus,  198,  9. 

Knights  of  Constantinople^  Pagan 
practices,  56,  57. 

Knights  of  the  Cross,  Bohemian, 
59,  70. 

Knights  of  Faith  and  Charity, 
sketch,  124. 

Knights  of  Father  Mathew,  195. 

Knights  of  the  Holy  Grail,  296. 

Knights  of  Holy  Sepulchre,  58,  59. 

Knights,  Institution,  57  and  note. 

Knights  of  Jesv^  Christ,  see  Jesu- 
ates. 

Knights  of  Justice,  branch  of  Hos- 
pitalers, 65. 

Knights  of  King  Arthur,  296. 

Knights  of  Malta,  Hospitalers, 
62ff;  make  navigation  safe,  66; 
slave  traffic,  66;  kept  Turks 
from  Europe,  66. 

Knights  of  Methodism,  322. 

Knights  of  the  Red  Cross,  military 
order,  59. 

Knights  of  Rhodes,  Hospitalers,  62, 
66. 

Knights  of  the  Rosy  Cross,  see 
Rosicrucians,  107. 

Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  296. 

Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem, 
Hospitalers,  63;  soldiers,  65; 
defend  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem, 
66. 

Knights  of  St.  Lazarus,  order  for 
cure  of  leprosy,  122. 

Knights  of  St.  Thomas,  see  Brother- 
hood of  St.  Thomas  a  Becket. 

Knights  Templars,  founding  and 
history,  59ff;  defend  Kingdom 
of  Jerusalem,  66;  heroism  at 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  66  and  note; 
associated  with  St.  Thomas,  71; 
and  Freemasons,  110. 


408 


INDEX 


Labor,  Anthony,  23;  Western 
monks  given  to  hard,  27;  Bene- 
dictines, 33;  Carthusians,  36; 
Trappists,  43 ;» Mendicants,  46; 
Franciscans,  50;  Brothers  of 
Common  Lot,  89;  HmniUati, 
140;  Chiu-ch  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of,  366;  efiPect  on 
character,  393  and  note  and  ff. 

Lambert,  of  ^Liege,  founder  Beg- 
hards,  74. 

La  Salle,  founder  Brothers  of 
Christian  Schools,  176. 

Laura,  cluster  monastic  cells,  24. 

Law  and  Order  Leagues,  261. 

Lawyers,  and  Christianity,  101, 
102. 

Lawyers*  Patron  Saint,  St.  Yves, 
134. 

Lay  Helpers'  Association,  226,  233. 

LayTnen,  early  church,  13;  monks, 
20;  Syriac,  21;  Basilian,  25; 
Carthusians,  37;  early  promi- 
nence, 186;  mediaeval,  186;  un- 
worthy, 187;  church  needs,  203; 
in  English  Church,  226;  evan- 
gelism, 250;  missionary  move- 
ment, 384; 

Laymen's  Unions,  368,  369. 

Lazarists,  not  Knights  of  St.  Iaz- 
arus,  122;  sketch,  152ff. 

League,  Better  Brattleboro,  343. 

League  for  Social  Service,  262. 

Leckcarii^se^  Copiatae. 

Legion  of  Honor,  French  Order  of 
Merit,  58. 

Le-pers,  care,  122,  124,  156,  372. 

Lieberman,  missionary  foimder, 
154. 

Liguori,  founder  Redemptorists, 
155. 

Little  Gidding,  Protestant  confra- 
ternity, 234. 

Llantkony  Abbey,  Protestant  mon- 
astery, 235. 

Lollard,  Walter,  Legendary 
founder  of  Lollards,  84. 

Lollards,  allied  to  Beghards,  77; 
sketch,  84ff;  Alexians,  130. 

London  Societies,  Protestant,  213. 

London  Young  Men's  Societies,  220. 

Lord's  Day  Alliance,  261. 


Loyola,  Ignatius,  see  Ignatius. 

Luther,  an  Augustinian  hermit* 
28;  compared  with  Jovinian, 
29;  praises  Bernard,  42;  of 
Saxon  Order,  45;  praises  Theo- 
logia  Germanica  80;  and  Tau- 
ler,  83;  follows  Lollards,  86; 
debt  to  Wessel  94;  Spanish  fol- 
lowing, 107;  coat  of  arms,  349. 

Lutheran  Brotherhood,  347ff. 

Lyceum,  201. 

M 

Magdalene,  Saint,  Order  of  St. 
Louis,  124. 

If  a/to.  Knights  of,  62;  Hospitalers, 
66;  Conquered  by  French,  67; 
enslaved  Christians,  67. 

Maniches,  heretical  sect,  28;  dis- 
tressed Dominic,  53;  described, 
104. 

Marianists,  180. 

Marist  Fathers,  180. 

Marist  School  Brothers,  181. 

Marists,  ISOS. 

Martin  of  Tours,  connected  with 
Western  Monachism,  27. 

Martyrdom,  eariy,  15;  Flavian,  18; 
Franciscans,  59;  Beghards,  76; 
Lollards,  85;  Celestinians,  142; 
Jesuits,  148;  Marist,  154;  Fa- 
ther Damien,  156;  Methodist, 
311. 

Mary,  Missionaries  of  the  Immac- 
ulate Heart,  154;  Missionaries 
of  the  Company,  154. 

Master  of  the  Temple,  Head  of 
ICnights  Templars,  60. 

Mather,  Cotton,  Brotherhood  or- 
ganizer, 214. 

Mathew,  Father,  191ff;  Total 
Abstinence  Society,  194ff. 

Maturins,  see  Order  of  Mercy. 

Maurists,  literary  order,  170,  171. 

Mazenod,  Founder  Oblates,  157. 

Mechanics'  Institute,  273. 

Mechitar,  educator,  179. 

Mechitarists,  Armenian  Benedic- 
tmes,  179. 

Melchites,  of  Libanus,  25. 

Men  and  Religion  Forward  Move- 
ment, 384flf. 

Men  of  Understanding,  Homines 
Intelligentise,  78. 


409 


INDEX 


Mendicant  Orders,  Brothers,  13; 
monastic  reform,  31;  rise  and 
history,  44ff. 

Mennais,  educational  founder,  181. 

*^Mens  Day,"  Scotland,  359. 

Mens  Help  Society,  225. 

Mens  League,  332. 

Mens  Record,  335. 

Merchant  Guilds,  association  for 
mutual  protection,  98. 

Merit  Orders,  outgrowth  of  TCnight- 
hood,  58;  represent  character 
and  deeds,  58. 

Methodist  Brotherhood,  organiza- 
tion, 319£F;  mutual  benefit,  365. 

Methodist  Club,  360. 

Methodist  Men,  322. 

Methodists,  Clarke  quoted,  44; 
popular  evangelism,  44;  medi- 
aeval, 54;  Lollards,  85,  note; 
educators,  168;  brotherhoods, 
221;  soldiers,  308ff. 

Metropolitan  Young  Men's  So- 
ciety, 223. 

Military  Orders,  56ff. 

Milites  Templi,  Knights  Templars, 
60. 

Militia  of  Christ,  for  social  service, 
203. 

Militia  Crucifera  Evangelica,  106. 

Militia  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  see 
Order  of,  123. 

Miller,  Rufus  W.,  D.  D.j  founder 
Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and 
Philip,  291,  381. 

Minims,  144. 

Misericordia,  see  Brothers  of. 

Missionary  Brotherhood,  236. 

Missionary  Fathers,  158. 

Missionary  Sons,  of  the  Immacu- 
late Heart,  158. 

Missions,  Trappists,  43;  Francis- 
can, 51;  Francis  Xavier,  148; 
Jesuits,  148ff;  Marist,  180; 
Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew,  245; 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  260;  trainmg  men, 
346;  city,  348;  laymen's  unions, 
368;  laymen's  movement,  384. 

Monachism,  originally  church 
brotherhoods  of  laymen,  20; 
ancient  Indian  origin,  20;  Jew- 
ish and  Roman,  20;  fed  by  social 
disorder,  21;  Christian  origin, 
21;  branches  and  founders,  21; 


causes,  21;  first  monastery,  23; 
Oriental  bore  rule  of  Basil,  24; 
kept  national  spirit  in  Russia 
and  Greece,  26;  western  less 
contemplative  and  ascetic,  27; 
Augustine  a  founder,  28;  charac- 
ter of  founders,  28;  mystical  as 
well  as  pietistic,  28;  opposed  in- 
dividualism and  worldliness,  28; 
early  foes,  29;  excess  restrained, 
29;  loss  of  vigor  in  fifth  century, 
29,  30;  Subiaco  cradle  of  later, 
30;  landmarks  western,  31; 
shares  general  fortunes  of 
Church,  34;  influence  on  civil- 
ization, 34;  union  of  institutions 
into  order,  35;  charity,  35,  118; 
Bernard  advocates,  41;  alUed 
with  Knighthood,  58;  social 
service,  118;  in  English  church, 
234ff. 

Monasteries,  most  illustrious  an- 
cient, 32;  poUtical  spoil,  42; 
social  centers,  118. 

Monica,  mother  of  Augustine,  27 
and  note. 

Monks,  brothers,  13,  note;  legends 
of  in  Hindu  literature,  20; 
Basilian  in  Greek  Church,  24; 
Greek  Caloyers,  or  Calogeri,  25; 
degenerate,  29;  new  disciphne 
35;  Trappist  at  Catacombs,  43; 
monastic  knights,  61;  half 
monks,  75. 

Monks  of  the  Thebaid,  foundation, 
22. 

Montfort,  Marist  founder,  154; 
educator,  178. 

Moravian  Brethren,  143. 

Mother-hmise,  chief  seat  of  monas- 
tic order,  25. 

Mothers,  Monica,  of  Augustine, 
27;  Alith  of  Bernard,  39,  40; 
Pica  of  Francis,  47;  Dream  of 
Dominic's,  53;  of  Suso,  81  and 
note. 

Music,  American  Guild  of  Organ- 
ists, 369. 

Mussart,  founder  Picpus,  150. 

Mutual  Aid  Societies,  ancient,  14; 
guilds,  98,  99;  Greece,  115;  see 
Benefit  Clubs. 

Mutual  Benefit  Branch,  Methodist 
Brotherhood,  365. 


410 


INDEX 


Mystical  Societies,  7. 

Mysticism,  related  to  Monachism, 
£8;  Franciscans,  54;  condemned, 
72;  defined,  73;  dangers,  73,  78, 
81;  occasional  references  else- 
where. 

Mystics,  Bernard,  41;  Francis,  54; 
Brotherhoods  and  work,  72ff; 
Prophetesses,  78. 

N 

iVawmtW David,  brotherhood 
founder,  221. 

Neri,  St.  Philip,  founder  oratories, 
132,  149. 

New  Devotion,  called  out  by  mis- 
eries, 87. 

Nicholas  of  Basle,  Beghard  martyr, 
76. 

Nolasco,  Peter,  founder  Order  of 
Mercy,  123. 

Norbert  of  Xanten,  founder  of 
Premonstjatensians,  118. 

Notre  Dame,  Confraternity,  140. 

Nurses,  Parabolani,  16;  Hospital- 
ers, 64. 


Ohlates,  temporary  Trappists,  43; 
Blessed  Virgin  of  St.  Ambrose, 
150;  of  Italy,  152;  of  Mary,  157. 

Observance  Congregation  St.  Ber- 
nard of  Spain,  42. 

Observantines,  established  in  Spain, 
52  and  note. 

Odd  Fellows,  religious  services,  101. 

Odilo,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  35. 

Office,  for  making  Knight,  57,  note. 

Ophites,  104,  note. 

Orangemen,  207,  208. 

Oratory,  Portiuncula  of  St.  Fran- 
cis, 49. 

Oratory  of  Divine  Love,  144. 

Oratories,  orders,  149,  150;  of 
Jesus,  teachers,  169. 

Order,  first  strictly  applicable,  35. 

Order  of  the  Coif,  Sergeants  at 
law,  101. 

Order  of  Fidelity,  Baden,  58. 

Order  of  the  Grain  of  Mustard  Seed, 
218. 

Order  of  the  Holy  Cross,  care  of 
sick,  123. 


Order  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Hospitals, 
sketch,  123. 

Order  of  Holy  Grail,  spurious,  58. 

Order  of  Jesu^  Christ,  French  mili- 
tary, 70. 

Order  of  Mercy,  sketch,  123. 

Order  of  Our  Lady  of  Mt.  Carmel, 
45. 

Order  of  St.  Lawrence,  girdlers, 
100,  note. 

Orders,  spurious,  58. 

Orders  of  Bath,  Merit  and  Dis- 
tinguished Service,  58. 

Orders  of  Merit,  origin,  58. 

Organists'  Guild,  369. 

Origen,  describes  early  ascetics, 
21. 

Orphici,  successors  of  Pythagorean 
League,  104,  note. 

Otterbein  Brotherhood,  350ff. 

Oznaman,  founder,  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  189. 


Pachomius,  founder  of  Tabennites, 

23. 
Palladium,  Historia  Lausiaca,  24. 
Parabolani,     early     brotherhood, 

meaning  of  name,  15;  origin  and 

work,  16;  sometimes  identified 

with     Copiatae,     17;     political 

strifes,  17;  oflSces,  of  mercy  18. 
Parents,  Anthony,  22. 
Passionists,  155. 

Passy,  Paul,  social  reformer,  276. 
Paterini,    Hospital    Society,    127 

and  note. 
Patriotism,  fostered  by  monks,  26; 

lack  of  mourned,  27. 
Paul  the  Hermit,  22,  23. 
Paulist  Fathers,  158. 
Peace  or  Faith  Guilds,  associations 

for  musual  defence,  97. 
Peat,    Rev.    Sir    Robert,    revives 

Knights  St.  John,  67. 
Perfectionists,     extravagant,     78; 

mtellectual,  108. 
Pericolanti,    Italian    brotherhood 

to  protect  girls,  120. 
Personal  Evangelism,  Bernard,  40. 
Personal  work,  269,  297,  301,  304ff, 

387,  397ff. 
Peter  of  Morone,  founder  Celes- 

tinians,  142. 


-ill 


INDEX 


Petrarch,  visits  Subiaco,  31,  note. 

Piarists,  educators,  169. 

Pica,  mother  of  Francis  of  Assisi, 
47. 

Picpus,  Franciscan,  150;  second 
society,  156. 

Pietism,  monastic,  28;  173ff. 

Plague,  care  of  victims,  15;  minis- 
try, 373. 

Pleasant  Sunday  Afternoon  Broth- 
erhood, Chapter  XVI. 

Poor  of  Christ,  early  Carthusians, 
36;  Knights,  60  and  note; 
Waldenses,  73. 

Poor  Fellow  Soldiers  of  Jesus 
Christ,  first  name  Knights 
Templars,  60. 

Poor  Men  of  Lyons,  followers  of 
Peter  Waldo,  49,  73. 

Port  Royal,  Gentlemen  of,  educa- 
tional reformers,  172. 

Portiuncula,  Oratory  of  St.  Fran- 
cis, 49;  Rose  garden  at  Portiunc- 
ula, 50. 

Preachers,  National  Association  of 
Local,  358. 

Preaching  Brethren,  Dominicans, 
52. 

Premonstratensians,  sketch,  118. 

Presbyterian  Brotherhood,  323ff. 

Presbyterian  Brotherhood  of  Amer- 
ica, 324ff. 

Presbyterian  Clubs,  359ff. 

Presbyterian  Ministers'  Fund,  in- 
surance, 365. 

Priests  of  Obedience,  branch  of 
Knights  of  St.  John,  65. 

Priests*  Total  Abstinence  League, 
195. 

Profanity,  opposed,  126,  141. 

Protestantenverien,  Protestant  as- 
sociation, 357. 

Protestants,  Hospitalers  of  Brand- 
enburg, 69;  Pre-Reformation, 
86,  143;  Brothers  of  Common 
Life,  94;  abolished  guilds,  103; 
Rosicrucians,  106  and  note; 
educators,  167;  educates  women, 
183. 

Protestant  Union,  206,  207. 

Puebla,  John  de,  founder  Observ- 
antines,  52,  note. 

Pythagoras,  select  fraternity  of, 
20,  21,  104  and  note. 


Qusrhes,  educational  founder,  183. 


RancS,  Armand  John  le  Bouthil- 
lier  de,  founder  Trappists,  42. 

Rauzan,  missionary  founder,  157. 

Recollects,  Observant  Franciscans, 
150. 

Red  Cross  Knights,  military  order, 
59. 

Redeemer,  see  Redemptorists. 

Redemptorists,  155. 

Reform,  Jerome,  Ambrose,  Augus- 
tine, 29;  Jovinian's  effort,  29; 
Benedicts,  30;  Clunian,  31,  35, 
44;  Mendicants,  31,  44ff;  Jesuit, 
31;  Cistercian,  38,  41;  Trappists, 
42;  reformed  Augustines,  45; 
Capuchins,  52;  Waldensian,  73; 
LoUard,  85;  counter  reforma- 
tion, 136;  Celestinian,  142; 
Borromeo,  152;  Jansenist,  172; 
215,  216,  261;  social,  273,  city. 
341ff;  brotherhood,  389ff. 

Reform  Bureau,  International,  261. 

Reformed  Cistercians,  see  Trap- 
pists. 

Religious-Social  Guilds,  ancient 
of  England,  97. 

Rhodes,  Knights  of,  62. 

Ribbonmen,  188. 

Robert  of  Arbrissel,  founder  Fonte- 
vraud,  139. 

Robert  of  Molesme,  founder  Cis- 
tercians, 38. 

Romuxild,  founder  Camaldoli,  137. 

Rosenkreuz,  Christian,  reputed 
founder  Rosicrucians,  105. 

Rosicrucians,  mythical  fraternity, 
105;  modem,  107. 

Rosmini,  founder  Rosminians,  15'i . 

Rosminians,  157. 

Ruthenians,  Basilian  communi- 
ties, 25. 

Ruysbroek,  Jan,  noted  mystic,  80, 
89. 

Ryken,  educational  founder,  183. 

S 

Sacrifice,  of  Anthony,  22;  never 
absurd  or  fruitless,  16,  26,  39, 


412 


INDEX 


49;  of  Dominic,  53;  of  Servites, 
55;  admirable,  56;  Tauier,  82; 
Colombini,  129  and  note;  John 
of  God,  131;  Neri,  132;  Bor- 
romeo,  151;  Vincent  and  fol- 
lowers, 153;  Father  Damien, 
156;  Church,  163;  Stokes,  373. 

Salesian  Fathers,  183. 

Samuel  Stokes,  Jr.,  founder  Broth- 
erhood of  Imitation  of  Jesus, 
370ff. 

Santa  Maria  deUa  Scala,  Hospital, 
see  Soror. 

Saviour t  Order,  142. 

Schmalkaldic  League,  Protestant 
205. 

Schmidt,  Conrad,  leader  of  Flagel- 
lants, 78. 

Scottish  Brotherhood,  282. 

Scottish   Brotherhood   Union,   324. 

Scottish  Church  Men's  Society,  229. 

Scottish  Presbyterian  Brotherhoods, 
323. 

Scottish  Presbyterian  Guilds,  323. 

Seabury  Society,  233. 

Seaman  s  Guild,  230. 

Sea-et  Societies,  103ff. 

Self-conquest,  secret  of  strength, 
7;  Anthony,  23;  influence  of, 
26;  Benedict,  31;  austerity,  36; 
Tesselin,  39,  note;  St.  Francis, 
48;  Egidio,  51. 

Senf  kam  Orden,  218. 

Sepulchre,  Knights  of,  58ff;  can- 
ons, 59;  defence,  60;  Hospitals, 
63. 

Serjeants  at  Law,  wore  coifs,  60; 
Order  of  Coif.  101. 

Servants  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
Mendicants,  55. 

Service,  practical  Christian,  8; 
spirit  of  Franciscans,  50. 

Serving  Brothers,  branch  of 
Knights  of  St.  John. 

Servites,  fifth  mendicant  order,  55. 

Silent  Brotherhood,  see  Deutsche 
Union. 

Slate  Clubs,  317. 

Sleepless  Monks,  'iA. 

Social  Service,    Brattleboro    Cam- 
paign,    341;    settlement,    361 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Union,  368 
evangelism,  387  and  note 
Church  and  socialism,  395,  396 


Social  Service,  American  Institute 
of,  262. 

Social  Union,  Church,  366. 

Society,  literature  of  Lollards,  86; 
social  message  of  Jesus,  116; 
evolution  religious,  117;  refor- 
mation, 262;  ideal,  272;  better- 
ment, 273,  283,  368,  388ff; 
unit  of,  392;  needs  ideals,  396. 

Society  of  the  Atonement,  232. 

Society  for  Improving  Condition  of 
Young  Men,  252. 

Society  of  Mission  Clergy,  23i. 

Society  of  Mission  Priests,  Angli- 
can, 231. 

Society  for  Reformation  of  Man- 
ners, 215. 

Society  of  St.  Paul,  236. 

Sodalities,  early,  14;  199,  200. 

Soldiers,  Pachomius,  23;  Tesselin, 
39;  Girard,  40;  Poor  Fellow 
Soldiers  of  Jesus  Christ,  60;  of 
Temple,  60;  daring  of  Knights 
of  St.  John,  66;  Methodist 
societies,  308ff. 

Sons  of  the  Covenant,  21. 

Soror,  foimder  of  hospital  at  Siena, 
119. 

Southern  Presbyterian  Brotherhood, 
331. 

Spener,  foimder  Pietists,  173. 

Spurious  Orders,  58. 

St.  Andrew's  Cross,  magazine  of 
Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew, 
363fiP. 

St.  Anthony's  Fire,  see  Antonines, 
121. 

St.  Austin,  quoted,  387. 

St.  Bento  d'  Avis,  chivalric  Portu- 
guese Order,  68,  note. 

St.  Giovanni  DecoUato,  attendant 
at  executions,  120. 

St.  James  of  Alcantara,  Spanish 
military  order,  68. 

St.  James  of  Compostella,  Spanish 
military  order,  68. 

St.  Jerome  deUa  Carita,  society  to 
protect  prisoners,  120. 

St.  John  of  Matha,  foimder  Trini- 
tarians, 123. 

St.  Johns  Ambulance  Association, 
in  England,  67. 

St.  Joseph,  Orders,  153,  154, 
180. 


413 


INDEX 


St.  Louis,  founder  order  for  sup- 
pression of  duels,  124. 

St.  Magdalene,  order  for  suppres- 
sion of  duels,  124. 

St.  Paul  of  the  Cross,  155. 

St.  Thomas  d  Becket,  English  Or- 
der, 71. 

Steinmetzen,  stone-masons,  see 
Freemasons. 

Stephen,  Abbot,  message  to  Christ, 
40,  note. 

Stephen  of  Thiers,  foimder  Grand- 
mont,  138. 

Stoics,  relation  to  monachism,  20. 

Sulpicians,  175. 

Sv^o,  Henry,  noted  mystic,  81. 


Tabennites,  founded  by  Pachom- 
ius,  24ff. 

Tauler,  John,  famous  mystic,  77, 
80,  82,  83. 

Temperance,  required  of  Benedic- 
tines, 33;  Father  Mathew,  191ff; 
Anti-Saloon  League,  262ff ; 
literature,  264;  men's  clubs,  361. 

Temperance  Union,  Connecticut, 
263. 

Templars,  see  Knights  Templars. 

Temptation,  Anthony,  23;  Bene- 
dict, 31;  Francis,  50. 

Tesselin,  or  Tescelin,  father  of 
Bernard,  39. 

Teutonic  Knights,  Military  Order, 
59;  origin  and  history,  68;  and 
mysticism,  80. 

" The  Men"  Scotch  Presbyterian. 
358. 

Theatins,  144. 

Thebaid,  Monks  of,  22. 

Theologia  Germanica,  Gem  of 
Mystic  literature,  80. 

Therapeutae,  related  to  monasti- 
cism,  20. 

Thrift  Clubs,  318. 

Tobias,  founder  Cellites,  see  Alex- 
ian  Brothers. 

Trade-guilds,  associations  of  mer- 
chants and  crafts,  98£F;  Free- 
masons, 112. 

Trades-Unions,  102,  272. 

Trappists,  Reformed  Cistercians, 
42.  43. 


Triest,  founder  Brothers  of  Char- 
ity. 179. 
Trinitarians,  sketch,  123  and  note. 


U 


Unitarian  Laymen,  National 
League,  347. 

Unitas  Fratrum,  219;  see  Morav- 
ian Brethren. 

United  Brethren  Brotherhood,  350ff. 

United  Presbyterian  Mens  Move- 
ment, 332ff. 

United  States  Christian  Commis- 
sion, 257  and  note. 

Unity,  in  service,  8,  11;  brother- 
hood, 383ff. 

Universalism,  "Men  of  Intelli- 
gence," 78. 

Universalist  Laymen,  National 
League,  347. 


Valley  of  Wormwood,  Bemardines, 
41. 

Vallombrosa,  order  of,  138. 

Vargas,  Dom  Martin  de,  founder 
of  Congregation  of  the  Observ- 
ance of  St.  Bernard,  42. 

Vehmgericht,  Fraternity  of  Justice, 
104,  105. 

Viateur,  Clerics  of  St.,  183. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  founder  IiEza- 
rists,  152ff;  society,  189,  190. 

Visions,  Francis,  48,  49;  Dominic's 
mother,  53;  professed,  78. 

Vows,  monastic,  the  three  founda- 
tion stones,  24;  brotherly,  57; 
Knights  monastic,  58;  Knights 
Templars,  60;  popularity  of 
Knights,  61;  temporary,  89; 
Congregations  Religious,  119, 
note;  Cellites  of  Tobias  no  vows, 
130;  Brothers  Hospitalers  of  St. 
John  of  God,  132;  Jesuits'  papal 
147. 

W 

Waldenses,  sketch,  73ff. 

Weisshaupt,  Adam,  founder  of 
Illuminati,  108. 

Wesley,  John,  perceived  dangers 
of  Mysticism,  83;  differs  from 
Luther,  83;  anticipated  by 


414 


INDEX 


Wyckllfife,  85,  note;  and  a 
Kempis,  93;  aids  brotherhoods, 
216 ;  brotherhood  influences, 
220;    democracy,  279;   soldiers. 


/or 


Wesley  Brotherhood,  319. 

Wesleyan  Brotherhood,  316flf. 

Wesleyan     Methodist     Union 
Social  Service,  368. 

Wessel,  John,  noted  Mystic. 

Whippets,  see  Flagellantes. 

White  Brethren,  or  Penitents,  143. 

WiMiam  of  Acquitaine,  founder 
of  Cluny,  35. 

Williams,  Sir  George,  249ff.       ' ^] 

Wilson,  Bishop  Luther  B.,  Presi- 
dent Anti-Saloon  League,  263. 

Workingmen,  274,  277,  366ff,  392, 
393. 

WycMiffe,  John,  and  Lollards, 
84;  opposed  by  Groote,  90; 
Hussites,  143. 


Xarden,  Norbert  of,  founder  Pre- 

monstratensians,  118. 
Xaverian  Brothers,  183. 
Xenodochia,  hospital,  119. 


Young  Irish  Crusaders,  194. 
Young   Men^s   Christian  Associa- 
turn,  248ff. 


Young  Men's  Christian  Confedera- 
tion, 256. 
Young  Men's  Christian  Institute, 

Young  Men's  Christian  Union,  255. 

Young  Mens  Friendly  Society, 
225,  226. 

Young  Mens  Guild,  Scotch,  323. 

Young  Men's  Institute,  200. 

Young  Men's  Scripture  Associa- 
tion, 224. 

Young  Men's  Society,  Glasgow, 
222. 

Young  Men's  Society  of  Enquiry, 
255. 

Yves,  or  Evona  or  Ives,  St.,  patron 
saint  of  lawyers,  134. 


Zaccharia  of  Cremona,  founder 
Bamabites,  145. 

Zeal,  Bernard,  40;  Dominic,  53; 
contrasting  of  Francis  and  Dom- 
inic, 54;  crusades,  56;  Elnights 
Templars,  61;  Waldenses,  73; 
Beghards,  75;  Lollards,  86; 
Jesuits,  147;  Borromeo,  151; 
St.  Vincent,  153;  Maurist,  171; 
Oznaman,  190;  Mathew,  193; 
Williams,  250. 

Ziuzeudorf,  174 


415 


H  DAY  n^v 

LOAN  DEPT 

^«  book  is  due  on  the  last  rfl 
^ r  ^  ^  ^Q  immediate  recall 


71..;^^°?^^^  library 


